Grounded Theory: A Methodology for Discovering Social Processes, Slides of Social Work

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What is Grounded Theory?

Dr Lynn CalmanResearch Fellow School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work

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Grounded theory

The aim of grounded theory is: ‘to generate or discover a theory’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967)

Grounded theory may be defined as: ‘

the discovery of theory from data systematically obtained from social research’

(Glaser and Strauss 1967: 2).

History of GT •

Developed in the School of Nursing, University of CaliforniaSan Francisco by sociologists Glaser and Strauss – Awarenessof Dying

Influenced by Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer 1969: 2)

Human beings act towards things on the basis of themeanings that these things have for them

The meaning of such things is derived from, and arises outof, the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows

These meanings are handled in, and modified through, aninterpretive process used by the person in dealing with thething he encounters.

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History of GT

1960’s move from natural science as the foundation of socialresearch – new ways of investigating the social world

Denzin and Lincoln’s – Modernist moment

Realist ontology

epistemology–objective truths, generalisable, testableand verifiable theory

Place of the researched and the researcher

‘discovery of theory’

The move in social science towards postmodernism and post-

structuralism has resulted in GT being attacked for itsobjectivist and positivist foundations.

In later works Glaser and Strauss, take on the language

associated with interpretivisum -? change in foundation

Constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz)

[b]y adopting a constructivist grounded theory approach, theresearcher can move grounded theory methods further into therealm of interpretive social science consistent with a Blumarian(1969) emphasis on meaning, without assuming the existence of aunidimensional external reality

(Charmaz 2000: 521).

•This theoretical perspective may then be able to answer some ofthe criticisms of modernist grounded theory •As in other constructivist methodologies, a constructivist GTarises from interaction between the researcher and participants,the researcher’s perspective being part of the process.

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Features of Grounded Theory

Charmaz (1995, 2002) identifies a number of features that all

grounded theories have:

simultaneous collection and analysis of data

creation of analytic codes and categories developed from dataand not by pre-existing conceptualisations (theoreticalsensitivity)

discovery of basic social processes in the data

inductive construction of abstract categories

theoretical sampling to refine categories

writing analytical memos as the stage between coding andwriting

the integration of categories into a theoretical framework.

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Data collection methods

‘all is data’

In-depth interviews

Most commonly used

Relies on open ended questions

Questions can be modified to reflect emerging theory

Observational methods

Focus Group

Can be used

Interviews •

Start with topic guide – Broad question (prompts and probes)

Concurrent data collection and analysis

development of categories and components of the theory

narrowing down to area of interest and concern toparticipants - fill out categories

Topic guide will change

The role of the literature review •

To achieve theoretical sensitivity, the researcher must beginwith as few predetermined ideas, particularly hypotheses, aspossible so he or she can be as sensitive to the data as possible.

This does not mean that the researcher must start with atabula rasa, as is often assumed.

An open mind not an empty head (Dey 1999)

it is how prior knowledge is used that makes the difference;- used to inform our analysis rather than to direct it.

Literature can be used as ‘data’ and constantly compared withthe emerging categories to be integrated in the theory (Glaser1992)

Theoretical sampling Glaser and Strauss (1967) indicate that theoretical sampling •

is the process of data collection for generating theory wherebythe analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyses his data anddecides what data to collect next and where to find them, inorder to develop theory as it emerges (Glaser and Strauss1967: 45).

Charmaz (1990) suggests that theoretical sampling is best usedwhen some key concepts have been discovered. Initial datacollection is commenced with a fairly ‘random’ group ofpeople, who have experienced the phenomenon under study, tobegin to develop concepts. Theoretical sampling is then usedto generate further data to confirm and refute originalcategories.

Analysis Open, axial, and selective (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998)

open coding refers to the process of generating initialconcepts from data

axial coding to the development and linking of conceptsinto conceptual families- coding paradigm

selective coding to the formalising of these relationshipsinto theoretical frameworks

Analysis Keeping the codes active using the constant comparative method

asking

What is actually happening here?

Under what conditions does this happen?

What is this data a study of?

What category does this incident indicate?

(Glaser 1978)

The development of the core category •

Glaser (1978) highlights the importance of the core categoryfor grounded theory: [t]he generation of theory occurs around a

core

category.

Without a core category an effort of grounded theory will driftin relevancy and workability (Glaser 1978: 93).

The core category accounts for most of the variation of dataand therefore most other categories relate to it in some way.

The core category is a more highly abstracted category but stillmust remain grounded in the data. The major categories arerelated to the core category and these categories show how thecore category works in the lives of participants.

How it is developed is a bit vague!

Saturation of concepts •

Theoretical saturation of concepts is the point at which thedata collection and analysis cycle can conclude

‘saturation means that no additional data are being foundwhereby the sociologist can develop the properties of thecategory’ Glaser and Strauss (1967: 61)

Does not mean exhaustion of data sources (which Dey labelssufficiency rather than saturation) rather than full developmentof a category.