CHAPTER 4

Consciousness – everything of which person aware at any given time (thoughts, feelings,

sensations, external environment)

Circadian Rhythm – regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and

behaviors within 24-hour cycle (regulates all vital life functions and psychological functions like

learning efficiency and mood)

Subjective Night – time during 24-hour period when biological clock tells person to sleep

Restorative Theory of Sleep – function of sleep to restore body and mind

Circadian Theory of Sleep – sleep evolved to keep humans safe during night

NREM Sleep – slow respiration and hear rate / little body movement / low blood pressure and

brain activity

REM Sleep – rapid eye movements / paralysis of large muscles / fast, irregular heart and

respiration rates / increased brain activity / vivid dreams

Parasomnias – behaviors and physiological states that normally occur only in waking state take

place during sleep

Somnambulism – (sleep walking) occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep

Somniloquy – (sleep talking) can occur in any stage

Sleep Terrors – sleeper awakes in panicked state during stage 4 sleep

Nightmares – frightening dreams during REM sleep

Dyssomnias – disorders in which timing, quantity, or quality of sleep impaired

Narcolepsy – disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and attacks of REM sleep

Sleep Apnea – disorder in which breathing stops during sleep

Insomnia – difficulty falling or staying asleep / waking too early / light, restless, or poor quality

of sleep

REM Dreams – story-like quality / more visual, vivid and emotional than NREM dreams

NREM Dreams – less frequent and memorable than REM dreams

Lucid Dreaming – steps that enable dreamers to control content of dreams (may help alleviate

depression)

Manifest Content – content of dreams as recalled by dreamers

Latent Content – underlying meaning of dreams

Activation-synthesis Theory of Dreaming – dreams brain’s attempt to make sense of random

firing of brain cells during REM sleep

Evolutionary Theory of Dreaming – vivid REM dreams enable people to rehearse skills needed

to deal with threatening events

Hypnosis – procedure using power of suggestion to change thoughts, feelings, sensations,

perceptions, or behavior

Substance Abuse – continued use of a substance after episodes in which use has negatively

affected work, education, and social relationships

Physical Drug Dependence – compulsive pattern of drug use in which user develops drug

tolerance

Drug Tolerance – user less affected so larger doses required for effect

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CHAPTER 4

 Consciousness – everything of which person aware at any given time (thoughts, feelings, sensations, external environment)  Circadian Rhythm – regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors within 24-hour cycle (regulates all vital life functions and psychological functions like learning efficiency and mood)  Subjective Night – time during 24-hour period when biological clock tells person to sleep  Restorative Theory of Sleep – function of sleep to restore body and mind  Circadian Theory of Sleep – sleep evolved to keep humans safe during night  NREM Sleep – slow respiration and hear rate / little body movement / low blood pressure and brain activity  REM Sleep – rapid eye movements / paralysis of large muscles / fast, irregular heart and respiration rates / increased brain activity / vivid dreams  Parasomnias – behaviors and physiological states that normally occur only in waking state take place during sleep  Somnambulism – (sleep walking) occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep  Somniloquy – (sleep talking) can occur in any stage  Sleep Terrors – sleeper awakes in panicked state during stage 4 sleep  Nightmares – frightening dreams during REM sleep  Dyssomnias – disorders in which timing, quantity, or quality of sleep impaired  Narcolepsy – disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and attacks of REM sleep  Sleep Apnea – disorder in which breathing stops during sleep  Insomnia – difficulty falling or staying asleep / waking too early / light, restless, or poor quality of sleep  REM Dreams – story-like quality / more visual, vivid and emotional than NREM dreams  NREM Dreams – less frequent and memorable than REM dreams  Lucid Dreaming – steps that enable dreamers to control content of dreams (may help alleviate depression)  Manifest Content – content of dreams as recalled by dreamers  Latent Content – underlying meaning of dreams  Activation-synthesis Theory of Dreaming – dreams brain’s attempt to make sense of random firing of brain cells during REM sleep  Evolutionary Theory of Dreaming – vivid REM dreams enable people to rehearse skills needed to deal with threatening events  Hypnosis – procedure using power of suggestion to change thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior  Substance Abuse – continued use of a substance after episodes in which use has negatively affected work, education, and social relationships  Physical Drug Dependence – compulsive pattern of drug use in which user develops drug tolerance  Drug Tolerance – user less affected so larger doses required for effect

 Withdrawal Symptoms – physical and psychological symptoms when drug use discontinued  Psychological Drug Dependence – craving or irresistible urge for drug’s pleasurable effects (more difficult to overcome than physical dependence) CHAPTER 5  Stimulus (S) – any event or object in environment to which organism responds  Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – elicits unconditioned response without learning (food / loud noise / light in eye / puff of air in eye)  Unconditioned Response (UR) – response elicited by unconditioned stimulus without learning (salivation / startle response / contractions of pupil / eyeblink)  Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits conditioned response (tone / buzzer / bell)  Conditioned Response (CR) – learned response elicited by conditioned stimulus (salivation to tone)  Generalization – tendency to make conditioned response to stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus (sounds like alarms)  Discrimination – learned ability to distinguish between similar Ss so that conditioned response occurs only to original conditioned stimulus, not to similar Ss (odors distinguish spoiled food / visual discriminations of harmful objects)  Biological Predispositions – organisms biologically predisposed to acquire classically conditioned associations that enhance chances for survival  Taste Aversions – foods you do not like or like to be around  Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect – consequence, or effect, of response determines whether tendency to respond in same way in future strengthened or weakened (ex. Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequences)  Shaping – gradually molding desired response by reinforcing any movement in direction desired response (animal models – writing or learning language [the example of Spanish and French])  Positive Reinforcement (+Rf) – pleasant or desirable consequence that increases probability that response will be repeated (A on test = praise)  Negative Reinforcement ( - Rf) – termination of unpleasant condition following response that increases probability that response will be repeated (fastening seatbelt – giving in to whining; when you have a headache, you take a pain reliever = negative reinforcement)  Primary Reinforcer – reinforcer that fulfills basic physical need and does not depend on learning (food and water, air, sex)  Secondary Reinforcer – reinforcer acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers (money, getting praised)  Fixed-Ratio (FR) – Rf after fixed number of correct, nonreinforced Rs (piecework in factories or sales – praise every third time homework on time)  Variable-Ratio (VR) – Rf after varying number of nonreinforced Rs (slot machines – praise for homework completion varies; after 1, then 3, then 2,…)

 Storage – maintaining info in memory (consolidation involves physiological change in brain)  Retrieval – bring stored information to mind  Visual (iconic memory) – fraction of second  Auditory (echoic memory) – up to 2 seconds  Eidetic Imagery – ability to retain image of visual stimulus for several minutes / 5% of children)  Working Memory – workspace for carrying out mental activity (solving math problems)  Displacement – when short term memory is full, each new, incoming item pushes out existing item  Chunking – grouping bits of information into larger units so easier to remember (ex. Remembering your banner ID number)  Rehearsal – repeating information to maintain in short term memory  Maintenance Rehearsal – repeating phone numbers  Elaborative Rehearsal – distinguishing psychological disorders by linking them to movie characters  Automaticity – ability to recall information from long-term memory without effort (writing without having to think about each letter in words)  Overlearning – practicing or studying material beyond point where it can be repeated once without error  Spaced Practice – learning in short practice sessions with rest periods in between  Massed Practice – cramming  Long Term Memory – virtually unlimited capacity for containing person’s permanent or relatively permanent memories  Declarative Memory – stores facts and information / life events  Nondeclarative Memory – stores motor skills, habits, simple conditioned responses (if you haven’t rode a bike in 5-10 years and someone gives you a bike to ride, you will be able to ride it due to nondeclarative memory)  Recall – produce required information with minimal cues (essay tests)  Recognition – identify information as having been encountered before (multiple choice tests)  Relearning – measures retention in terms of time saved when relearning material compared to time required to learn it initially (purpose of education)  Serial Position Effect – recall better for items at beginning and end of lists  Primary Effect – tendency to recall first items in sequence more easily than middle items  Recency Effect – tendency to recall last items in sequence more easily than middle items (being able to recall the first and last things you see on a list for a test)  Context Effect – tendency to encode elements of physical setting in which information learned along with information itself (test-taking skills; think about room in which studied; study in room where test will be administered)  Cryptomnesia – failure to use source monitoring when writing papers may lead to omitting citation or unintentional plagiarism; not paying attention to source of information)  Flashbulb Memories – extremely vivid memories of surprising, shocking, or highly emotional events (September 11, 2001 or Kennedy’s assassination)  Forgetting – inability to bring to mind information previously remembered

 Ebbinghaus – largest amount of forgetting occurs quickly then tapers off  Encoding Failure – information never stored in long term memory  Decay Theory – if not used, memories fade with time and eventually disappear  Consolidation Failure – failure of long term memories to form (affected by sleep / trauma / shock therapy)  Motivated Forgetting – forgetting through suppression or repression to protect self from painful or unpleasant information (forget because you do not want to remember)  Suppression – conscious attempts to forget  Repression – burying traumatic memories in unconscious  Retrieval Failure – not remembering something one certain of knowing (tip of the tongue phenomenon)  Amnesia – partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause  Anterograde Amnesia – inability to form new long term memories (H.M. most famous case = alcohol blackouts)  Retrograde Amnesia – loss of memory for experiences occurring shortly before loss of consciousness (Jason Bourne movies) CHAPTER 7  Achievement Tests – measure what person has learned to a certain point in life  Aptitude Tests – predict future performance in particular setting or on specific task  Intelligence Tests – measure general intellectual ability  Reliability – extent to which test yields consistent results  Validity – extent to which test measures what intended to measure (serves purpose for which selected)  Standardization – establishing norms against which to compare scores of people who will take test in future (requires administering tests using prescribed procedure)  Emotional Intelligence – ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life (awareness of personal emotions / ability to manage emotions / self–motivation / empathy / ability to handle relationships)  Creativity – ability to produce original appropriate and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems (weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQ)  Divergent Thinking – ability to produce multiple ideas or solutions to problem for which no accepted solution (unusual uses for brick or paper clip)  Convergent Thinking – producing correct answer (solving math problem or multiple choice test)

Learning Theory and Memory: Conditioning, Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval - Prof. Theodor, Study notes of Psychology

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CHAPTER 4