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PHAR 100 Exam – Real Exam Questions and Correct Answers, Exams of Pharmacology

University of California-San Francisco Pharmacology

PHAR 100 Exam – Real Exam Questions and Correct Answers

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 07/11/2025

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PHAR 100 Exam – Real Exam Questions and Correct Answers (Verified) University of

California, San Francisco (UCSF) A+ Grade

Who |discovered |morphine? |- |answersSerturner

and |death |by |respiratory |paralysis

What |is |Ergot? |- |answersa |poisonous |fungus |that |grows |on |the |heads |of |rye, |especially |during |wet |

seasons

What |is |the |potent |substance |of |peyote? |- |answersmescaline

What |are |the |effects |of |peyote? |- |answershallucinations, |a |feeling |of |well-being, |and |distortion |of |

perception |similar |to |that |of |LSD

What |is |a |drug? |- |answersany |substance |received |by |a |biological |system |that |is |not |received |for |

act |on |the |brain

Drugs |that |act |on |the |brain |alter |_____. |- |answersthe |normal |chemical |signalling |in |the |brain

What |is |an |example |of |a |drug |that |acts |on |the |brain? |- |answersLSD

Who |synthesized |LSD? |When? |- |answersAlbert |Hoffman |in |1943

LSD |is |similar |in |chemical |structure |to |___ |and |____. |- |answersergotamine |and |ergonovine

|fungi, |or |parasites

What |is |an |organoarsenical |and |what |does |it |cure? |- |answers- |a |complex |or |arsenic |and |organic |

- |cures |syphillis

Who |and |when |developed |Organoarsenicals? |- |answersPaul |Ehrlich |in |the |1900s

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PHAR 100 Exam – Real Exam Questions and Correct Answers (Verified) University of

California, San Francisco (UCSF) A+ Grade

|Drug: |anesthetics |during |surgery |to |relax |muscles What |is |Ergot? |- |answersa |poisonous |fungus |that |grows |on |the |heads |of |rye, |especially |during |wet | seasons What |is |the |potent |substance |of |peyote? |- |answersmescaline What |are |the |effects |of |peyote? |- |answershallucinations, |a |feeling |of |well-being, |and |distortion |of | perception |similar |to |that |of |LSD Is |zinc |oxide |found |in |many |topical |creams |today? |- |answersyes What |is |a |drug? |- |answersany |substance |received |by |a |biological |system |that |is |not |received |for | nutritive |purposes |and |which |influences |the |biological |function |of |the |organism What |are |the |two |major |categories |of |drugs |discovered |throughout |history? |- |answers1. |drugs |that | act |on |the |brain
|drugs |that |act |against |infectious |disease Drugs |that |act |on |the |brain |alter |_____. |- |answersthe |normal |chemical |signalling |in |the |brain What |is |an |example |of |a |drug |that |acts |on |the |brain? |- |answersLSD Who |synthesized |LSD? |When? |- |answersAlbert |Hoffman |in | 1943 LSD |is |similar |in |chemical |structure |to |___ |and |____. |- |answersergotamine |and |ergonovine What |is |an |infectious |disease? |- |answersany |disease |caused |by |an |organism, |such |as |bacteria, |viruses, |fungi, |or |parasites What |is |an |organoarsenical |and |what |does |it |cure? |- |answers- |a |complex |or |arsenic |and |organic | molecules |that |selectively |bind |to |parasites

|cures |syphillis Who |and |when |developed |Organoarsenicals? |- |answersPaul |Ehrlich |in |the |1900s

Who |and |when |developed |Sulla |drugs? |- |answersGerard |Domagk |in |the |1930s Who |and |when |discovered |Penicillin? |- |answersAlexander |Fleming |in |the |1940s Who |and |when |discovered |streptomycin? |- |answersSeaman |Waksman |in |the |1950s What |are |the |five |key |steps |of |drug |development? |- |answers1. |basic |research |and |drug |discovery

|preclinical |trials
|clinical |trials
|health |Canada |review |and |manufacturing
|post-market |surveillance |and |phase | 4 |clinical |trials What |are |the |two |steps |of |basic |drug |research? |- |answers1. |identification |of |the |target
|studying |the |target What |is |a |lead |compound? |- |answersa |compound |that |shows |promise |in |the |initial |studies |and |will | enter |more |detailed |studies What |are |the |two |categories |of |preclinical |studies? |- |answers- |pharmacology: |determines |the |detailed |mechanism |of |action |of |the |new |drug |

|toxicology: |determines |the |potential |risks |of |the |drug What |are |the |initial |steps |of |clinical |trials? |- |answers1. |proof |of |safety

|methodology
|investigation Target |Population |- |answersthe |group |of |patients |for |whom |the |drug |is |intended Study |Population |- |answersa |subset |of |the |target |population |that |meets |all |required |criteria Inclusion/Exclusion |Criteria |- |answersdefines |characteristics |of |the |patients |to |be |included |in |the | study, |determining |who |is |and |who |is |not |eligible |for |the |trial Consent |- |answersa |document |written |in |non-scientific |language |that |outlines |the |purpose |of |the | study, |etc |must |be |obtained |before |a |person |can |participate Double |Blind |Design |- |answerswhere |neither |the |investigator |nor |the |study |subject |is |aware |of |the | treatment |the |study |subject |is |assigned |to Randomization |- |answerspatients |are |assigned |to |the |experimental |treatment |group |or |a |control | group, |usually |by |computer |generation What |are |the |two |types |of |control? |- |answers- |placebo

|gold |standard

|Diffusion |through |lipids
|Active |transport P450 |- |answersenzymes |capable |of |biotransforming |drugs Phase | 1 |of |biotransformation |reactions |- |answersTo |add |or |unmask |a |functional |group |on |the |drug |to |prepare |it |for |the |addition |of |a |large |water-soluble |molecule |in |phase | 2 Phase | 2 |of |biotransformation |reactions |- |answersAdd |a |large |water-soluble |moiety |(glucaronic |acid |or |sulfate) |to |the |phase | 1 |product, |making |it |water-soluble |for |excretion |by |the |kidney Where |are |the |majority |of |drugs |eliminated? |- |answersKidney Adverse |drug |reaction |- |answersAny |effect |produced |by |a |drug |in |a |patient |that |is |not |the |intended | effect True |or |false? |A |drug |cannot |cause |effects |that |are |unrelated |to |the |intended |pharmacological |action | of |the |drug. |- |answersFalse What |mediates |an |allergic |reaction? |- |answersImmune |system Teratogenesis |- |answersWhen |a |drug |produces |defects |in |a |developing |fetus What |are | 4 |factors |in |predicting |adverse |drug |reactions? |- |answers- |rarity |of |occurrence

|length |of |usage
|detectability |in |animals
|time |period |specificity What |is |the |therapeutic |index? |- |answersTells |you |how |safe |the |drug |is |by |relating |the |dose |of |the | drug |required |to |produce |a |beneficial |effect |to |the |dose |required |to |produce |an |adverse |effect True |or |false? |The |higher |the |therapeutic |index, |the |safer |the |drug. |- |answersTrue TD50 |- |answersDose |of |the |drug |that |is |toxic |in |50% |of |the |population

ED50 |- |answersDose |of |the |drug |that |is |effective |in |50% |of |the |population Drug-food |interactions |- |answersThe |interference |of |food |with |drugs |taken |concurrently Where |is |tyramine |found? |- |answersWell |matured |cheese Tyramine |is |capable |of |____________ |and |is |broken |down |by________. |- |answers- |raising |blood | pressure

|by |monoamine |oxidase |(MAO) |in |the |liver Can |grapefruit |alter |the |absorption |of |some |drugs? |- |answersYes Why |is |grapefruit |not |served |in |ontario |hospitals? |- |answersBecause |a |component |of |grapefruit | inhibits |enzymes |that |metabolize |drugs |in |the |GI |tract, |which |leads |to |a |greater |amount |of |the |active | drug |being |absorbed, |which |leads |to |higher |blood |levels |of |the |drug, |leading |to |possible |overdose What |are |the |overall |functions |of |the |cerebral |cortex? |- |answers- |sensory/motor |coordination |
|mental |processes
|intelligence
|memory,
|vision
|judgement
|thought
|speech
|emotions
|consciousness What |are |of |the |brain |controls |emotion |and |behaviour? |- |answersThe |limbic |system |with |the | hypothalamus Neurogenesis |- |answersHow |new |neurons |are |generated Neuroplasticity |- |answersThe |connection |between |neurons |constantly |getting |reshaped What |is |the |primary |excitatory |neurotransmitter |in |the |CNS? |- |answersGlutamate Dopamine |and |norepinephrine |are |considered |what? |- |answersCatecholamines What |pathways |are |related |to |the |control |of |hormonal |systems, |motor |coordination, |and |motivation | and |reward? |- |answersDopaminergic What |is |the |primary |inhibitory |neurotransmitter |in |the |CNS? |- |answersgamma |amino |butyric |acid | (GABA) Does |acetylcholine |produce |an |inhibitory |or |excitatory |response |in |the |CNS? |- |answersExcitatory

|diarrhea
|abdominal |cramping
|vomiting Cross |tolerance |- |answersThe |resistance |or |tolerance |to |one |drug |because |of |the |resistance |or | tolerance |to |a |pharmacologically |similar |drug Harm |reduction |- |answersAn |approach |that |seeks |to |reduce/prevent |the |negative |consequences |of | substance |us |and |improve |health |without |judgement, |coercion, |discrimination, |and |without |requiring | the |person |to |stop |using |the |substance Misuse |- |answersUsing |the |drug |in |ways |or |amounts |other |than |what |is |prescribed |or |goes |against | social |norms What |are |the |five |factors |that |contribute |to |the |potential |for |misuse |of |a |drug? |- |answers1. |Nature |of |the |drug

|Route |of |administration: |routes |with |rapid |absorption |have |greater |potential
|Amount/frequency |of |use
|Availability
|Inherent |harmfulness Which |drug |class |doesn't |have |withdrawal? |- |answersHallucinogens |(EX: |LSD) Name | 2 |amphetamine-related |compounds |- |answers- |methylphenidate |(Ritalin): |for |ADHD

|MDMA |(ecstasy) Amphetamine's |four |main |effects |within |the |CNS |- |answers1. |Decreased |threshold |for |transmitting | sensory |input |to |the |cerebral |cortex, |leading |to |CNS |excitation

|A |feeling |of |euphoria |and |reward
|Temperature-regulation |and |feeding |center |modifications |leading |to |appetite |suppression
|Increase |in |aggressive |behaviour |and |mood |swings Amphetamine's |long |term |use |effects |- |answers- |chronic |sleeping |problems

|poor |appetite
|anxiety, |repetitive |behaviour, |psychoses, |aggressive |behaviour
|elevated |blood |pressure |and |abnormal |cardiac |rhythm What |are |two |therapeutic |uses |of |amphetamines? |- |answers- |narcolepsy
|ADHD Is |cocaine |a |CNS |stimulant? |- |answersYes

Duration |of |action |of |amphetamines |- |answersUp |to | 12 |hours Duration |of |action |of |cocaine |- |answersLess |than | 1 |hour Cocaine |inhibits |the |active |re-uptake |of |primarily |_______ |and |_________serotonin |into |the | presynaptic |neuron |- |answersDopamine |and |serotonin Does |cocaine |cause |a |generalized |CNS |stimulation |in |a |dose-dependent |manner? |- |answersYes What |is |the |only |therapeutic |use |of |cocaine? |- |answersLocal |anesthetic |for |the |mouth |and |throat Effects |of |long |term |use |of |cocaine |- |answers- |toxic |psychosis

|hallucinations, |sensations |of |insects |crawling |under |the |skin
|impaired |sexual |function
|permanent |brain |damage/impairment |of |neuronal |function |
|high |blood |pressure/irregular |heart |rhythm
|changes |to |nasal |mucosa True |or |false? |Nicotine |is |absorbed |rapidly |when |inhaled. |- |answersTrue What |is |the |half |life |of |nicotine? |- |answersAbout | 2 |hours What |receptors |does |nicotine |stimulate |at |the |synapses? |- |answersNicotinic Activation |of |nicotinic |receptors |increases |________. |- |answers- |psychomotor |activity
|cognitive |function
|attentions
|memory Short |term |effects |of |smoking |in |a |regular |smoker |- |answers- |mild |euphoria
|enhanced |arousal
|increased |ability |to |concentrate
|sense |of |relaxation
|increase |in |heart |rate |and |blood |pressure
|suppress |appetite Short |term |effects |of |smoking |in |a |non-regular |smoker |- |answers- |dizziness
|headache
|nausea
|vomiting

What |is |the |use |of |blood |doping |and |erythropoietin |in |sports? |- |answersIncrease |red |blood |cells | (circulation) How |is |blood |doping |detected? |- |answersMeasuring |the |age |of |red |blood |cells How |is |erythropoietin |detected? |- |answersTesting |urine |for |the |presence |of |recombinant | erythropoietin How |are |diuretics |used |in |sports? |- |answersReduce |body |water |so |the |athlete |can |compete |in |a |lower |weight |class Are |sedative-hypnotic |agents |CNS |stimulants |or |depressants? |- |answersDepressants What |are |the |doses |of |sedative-hypnotic |doses? |- |answers- |anti-anxiety: |for |anxiety |disorders

|sedation: |relieve |anxiety, |decrease |activate, |generally |calm |the |individual
|hypnosis: |sleep |by |producing |drowsiness
|general |anesthesia: |for |induced |anesthesia Some |therapies |aim |to |depress |overall |brain |activity. |By |doing |what? |- |answersBy |decreasing | glutamate-induced |nerve |firing How |does |GABA |inhibit? |- |answersBy |binding |to |and |selectively |opening |chloride |channels |that |are | built |of |multiple |subunits |that |span |the |neuronal |cell |membrane, |allowing |chloride |ions |to |flow |into | the |cell |when |signalled |to |open. |The |influx |of |chloride |ions |makes |it |harder |for |the |postsynaptic | neuron |to |transmit |incoming |messages |to |other |neurons |(depressing |CNS |neuronal |signalling). Does |each |sedative-hypnotic |bind |a |different |site |on |the |chloride |channel? |- |answersYes What |is |the |most |common |route |of |administration |of |benzodiazepines? |- |answersCapsule/tablet What |is |benzodiazepine's |mechanism |of |action? |- |answersActivation |of |the |benzodiazepine |receptor | increases |the |frequency |of |the |opening |of |the |chloride |channel Therapeutic |effects |of |benzodiazepines |- |answers- |relaxation, |calmness, |relied |from |anxiety
|skeletal |muscle |relaxation |and |have |anticonvulsant |effects
|minimal |REM-type |sleep What |type |of |therapeutic |index |do |benzodiazepines |have? |- |answersVery |high Antidote |for |benzodiazepines |- |answersFlumazenil Short |term |use |adverse |effects |of |benzodiazepines |- |answers- |CNS: |drowsiness, |lethargy, |fatigue, | impairment |of |thinking/memory
|breathing: |respiratory |depressions
|motor |coordination Long |term |use |adverse |effects |of |benzodiazepines |- |answers- |impaired |thinking

|poor |memory |and |judgement
|disorientation
|slurred |speech What |are |the |special |populations |that |receive |adverse |effects |of |benzodiazepine |use? |- |answers- | pregnant: |can |cross |the |placenta |and |go |into |the |fetus
|older |adults: |can |produce |cognitive |dysfunction |(bcuz |its |metabolized |slower) Misuse |and |SUD |of |benzodiazepine |- |answers- |misuse |potential: |low
|tolerance: |possible |but |not |rly |a |crazy |amount
|withdrawal: |mild |(anxiety, |headache, |insomnia)
|addiction: |possible What |are |barbiturates? |- |answersAnother |class |of |sedative |hypnotics How |are |barbiturates |classified? |- |answersAccording |to |their |duration |of |action
|long: |1-2 |days
|short: |3-8 |hours
|ultra |short: | 20 |mins What |is |the |route |of |administration |for |barbiturates |to |treat |epilepsy? |- |answersOral What |is |the |route |of |administration |for |barbiturates |for |anesthesia? |- |answersIntravenous What |are |barbiturate's |mechanism |of |action? |- |answersActivation |of |the |barbiturate |receptor | increases |the |duration |of |the |opening |of |the |chloride |channel Do |barbiturates |demonstrate |the |full |spectrum |of |dose-dependent |CNS |depression? |- |answersYes What |is |the |spectrum |of |dose-dependent |CNS |depression? |- |answersAnti-anxiety |—> |sedation |—> | hypnosis |—> |general |anesthesia |—> |death What |is |the |therapeutic |index |of |barbiturates? |- |answersLow What |is |the |antidote |for |barbiturates? |- |answersThere |is |no |antidote Do |barbiturates |suppress |REM-type |sleep? |- |answersYes Short |term |use |adverse |effects |of |barbiturates |- |answers- |mild |euphoria |and |reduced |interest |in | surroundings
|dizziness, |mild |impairment |of |motor |coordination |(esp |fine |motor |dexterity)
|depress |the |cardiovascular |system

|Or |MEOS |when |there's |high |doses |of |ethanol
|Acetaldehyde |to |acetate |by |ALDH
|Acetate |to |carbon |dioxide |and |water What |is |the |rate |limiting |step |of |alcohol |metabolism |- |answersADH Enzymes |in |alcohol |metabolism |- |answersADH, |ALDH, |MEOS What |is |the |mechanism |of |action |of |alcohol? |- |answersBy |binding |to |the |chloride |ion |channel |and | increasing |GABA-mediated |neuronal |inhibition Short |term |use |effects |of |alcohol |in |low |doses |- |answersCardiovascular: |flushing |of |the |vessels |to |the | skin Stomach: |increased |gastric |secretion Liver: |none Short |term |use |effects |of |alcohol |in |high |doses |- |answersCardiovascular: |depress |the |cardiovascular | system, |altering |the |normal |heart |rhythm Stomach: |irritation |of |stomach |lining, |causing |inflammation |and |erosion |(vomiting |may |occur) Liver: |inhibit |glucose |production What |are |the |effects |of |alcohol |use |during |pregnancy? |- |answers- |teratogenic |effects |in |the |fetus, | leading |to |Fetal |Alcohol |Spectrum |Disorder |(FASD) What |drug |is |used |for |alcohol |use |disorder? |- |answersNaltrexone What |is |the |most |potent |psychoactive |agent |in |cannabinoids? |- |answersTHC What |year |did |recreational |cannabis |become |legal |in |Canada? |- |answers What |are |the |cannabinoid |receptors? |- |answersCB1: |in |the |brain CB2: |outside |the |CNS Mechanism |of |action |of |cannabis |- |answersWhen |CB1 |is |activated |by |anandamide |or |THC, |it |inhibits | the |release |of |excitatory |neurotransmitters, |explaining |the |cognitive |function |and |depressant |effects What |is |anandamide? |- |answersAn |endogenous |ligand |for |CB |receptors |involved |in |learning |and | memory |processes Half-life |of |cannabis |- |answers30 |hours Short |term |cannabis |use |effects |- |answersCNS: |relaxation/drowsiness, |well-being |and |euphoria, | increased |motor |coordination, |increased |appetite Cardiovascular: |increased |heart |rate, |increased |blood |flow |to |the |extremities, |postural |hypotension GI |tract: |increased |appetite, |dryness |of |the |mouth |and |throat

|irritability
|loss |of |appetite
|nervousness
|mild |agitation
|upset |stomach
|sweating Classes |of |opioids |- |answers1. |Endogenous: |made |in |the |body |and |exert |analgesic |effects

|Natural |(morphine): |not |made |by |the |human |body
|Semi-synthetic: |slightly |altered |versions |of |morphine
|Synthetic: |chemically |synthesized |to |bind |to |the |opioid |receptors 3 |families |of |endogenous |opioids |- |answersendorphins, |enkephalins, |dynorphins Effect |of |each |class |of |opioid |- |answersEndogenous: |affects |the |perception |of |pain |and |the |emotional | response |to |pain Natural: |used |clinically |to |treat |severe |acute.chronic |pain |and |can |cause |euphoria Semi-synthetic: |used |for |clinical |therapies 2 |types |of |natural |opioids |- |answers1. |Morphine: |treats |chronic |pain |and |binds |directly |to |opioid | receptors
|Codeine: |10x |stronger |than |morphine 2 |types |of |semi-synthetic |opioids |- |answers- |hydromorphine: |5x |more |potent |than |morphine |and | used |for |analgesia

|diacetylmorphine |(heroin): |an |injectable |therapy |about |2-5x |more |potent Fentanyl |- |answers- |synthetic |opioid
|100x |more |potent |than |morphine
|designed |to |treat |pain Loperamide |- |answers- |synthetic |opioid
|side |effects: |consipation
|prevents |illicit |use, |as |it |does |not |cause |analgesia |or |euphoria Methadone |- |answers- |synthetic |opioid |used |for |analgesia

|maintains |the |cell |shape |and |integrity
|prevents |cell |lysis |from |high |osmotic |pressure What |is |the |difference |between |gram-positive |and |gram-negative |bacteria? |- |answersGram-positive | have |a |thick |peptidoglycan |layer |and |no |outer |membrane Gram-negative |have |a |thin |peptidoglycan |layer |and |an |outer |membrane What |are |the |two |spectrums |that |antibiotics |are |classified? |- |answersNarrow |spectrum |and |broad | spectrum What |is |narrow |spectrum |useful |against? |- |answersParticular |species |of |microorganisms What |is |broad |spectrum |useful |against? |- |answersA |wide |range |of |microorganisms, |including |gram- positive |and |gram-negative What |are |the |classifications |of |bacteria |that |target |the |biochemical |pathways? |- |answers Antibiotic |- |answersA |chemical |substance |that |suppresses |the |growth |of |bacteria, |and |may |eventually |destroy |them Are |antibiotics |produced |by |microorganisms |or |by |synthetic |compounds? |- |answersmicroorganisms What |is |the |purpose |of |an |antibiotic? |- |answersto |stop |a |bacterial |infection unlike |human |cells, |bacterial |cells |have |a |rigid |outer |layer |called |the |________, |which |completely | surrounds |the |__________. |- |answerscell |wall cytoplasmic |membrane what |is |a |peptidoglycan |layer? |- |answersan |element |of |the |cell |wall |that |is |a |complex, |cross-linked | polymer |of |polysaccharides |and |polypeptides gram-positive |vs |gram-negative |- |answers- |gram |positive |have |a |thick |peptidoglycan |layer |and |no | outer |membrane
|gram |negative |have |a |thin |peptidoglycan |layer |and |an |outer |membrane what |are |the |classifications |of |antibiotics |by |spectrum? |- |answersnarrow: |useful |against |particular | microorganism |species broad: |effective |against |a |wider |range |of |microorganisms, |including |gram-positive |and |gram-negative what |are |the |classifications |of |antibiotics |by |biochemical |pathway? |- |answers- |cell |wall |synthesis | inhibitors: |stop |the |proper |formation |of |the |bacterial |cell |wall |and/or |membrane, |influencing |the | structural |integrity |of |the |cell
|DNA |synthesis |inhibitors: |inhibit |DNA |replication |in |bacteria, |preventing |bacterial |growth
|protein |synthesis |inhibitors: |inhibit |protein |translation |within |bacteria |and |thereby |protein |synthesis
|metabolic |inhibitors: |block |the |formation |of |key |bacterial |metabolic |substrates |needed |for |bacteria | to |survive |and |reproduce

|semisynthetic |(EX: |modified |penicillin |G) describe |penicillin |G |- |answers- |narrow |spectrum |antibiotic |that |destroys |gram-positive |bacteria
|treats |pneumonia, |middle |ear |infections, |skin |infections, |and |meningitis
|treats |syphillis describe |methicillin |- |answers- |an |antibiotic |resistant |to |attack |by |penicillinase |(an |enzyme |that |is | resistant |to |penicillin |G |and |breaks |down |penicillin) describe |ampicillin |and |amoxicillin |- |answers- |broad |spectrum |(more |than |penicillin |G)
|useful |against |gram-negative |bacteria |
|treat |UTI describe |the |combination |of |amoxicillin |and |cavulanic |acid |- |answersa |combination |of |a |semisynthetic |penicillin |and |an |inhibitor |of |penicillinase |to |combat |penicillinase-producing |strains |of |bacteria describe |the |mechanism |of |action |of |penicillin |- |answers- |penicillin |is |closely |related |to |D-alanyl-D- alanine, |which |is |a |chemical |needed |for |the |formation |of |new |cell |walls
|penicillin |interferes |with |new |bacterial |cell |wall |formation |and |the |resulting |cells |are |formed | without |cell |walls |(these |are |protoplasts)
|humans |do |not |have |cell |walls |and |are |thus |unaffected |by |penicillin what |is |the |most |common |adverse |effect |of |penicillin |- |answersGI |distress |(nausea, |diarrhea) |due |to | disturbances |of |healthy |gut |flora if |an |individual |is |allergic |to |one |penicillin |preparation, |are |they |allergic |to |other |penicillin | preparations? |- |answersyes what |are |common |manifestations |of |penicillin |allergy |- |answersrash fever face |and |tongue |swelling itchy |hives

what |is |the |combination |product |of |sulfamethoxazole |and |trimethoprim? |- |answersco-trimoxazole, | which |treats |UTI, |respiratory |tact |infections, |and |GI |tract |infections when |should |antibiotics |be |used |in |combination? |- |answers- |to |treat |a |severe |infection |where |the | microorganism |is |not |known |or |the |infection |is |extremely |dangerous

|to |treat |an |infection |where |no |single |antibiotic |could |eliminate |all |the |different |bacteria |responsible
|to |treat |tuberculosis
|if |the |antibiotics |act |synergistically what |are |the |two |major |factors |associated |with |the |development |of |antibiotic |resistance? |- |answers- | evolution |of |bacteria
|clinical |and |environmental |factors what |are |the |causes |of |antibiotic |resistance? |- |answers- |over-prescription
|inappropriate |use
|use |in |agriculture will |antibiotics |help |the |flu |or |the |common |cold? |- |answersno; |these |are |caused |by |viruses |not | bacteria what |are |the |four |basic |mechanisms |for |how |organisms |become |resistant? |- |answersuptake: |small | molecules |gain |access |to |the |inside |of |the |microorganism |by |moving |through |pores |in |the | membranes target: |a |mutation |in |the |target |for |the |antibiotic |can |reduce |the |binding |of |the |drug |to |its |target |and |be |ineffective inactivation: |microorganisms |develop |an |enzyme |that |activates |the |antibiotic efflux |pumps: |some |microorganisms |will |over |express |transporters |that |pump |the |drug |out |of |the | microorganism |before |the |cell |can |be |injured describe |echinocandins |- |answers- |a |class |of |antifungals -act |by |inhibiting |the |synthesis |of |a |component |of |the |cell |wall, |resulting |in |disruption |of |the |cell |wall | and |fungal |death
|well |tolerated |by |patients
|only |available |for |IV |administration describe |imidazoles |- |answers- |effective |when |taken |orally |or |intravenously

|inhibit |a |fungal |cytochrome |P450, |which |inhibits |wegosterol |synthesis what |are | 2 |cell |wall |inhibitors |- |answersmicofungin caspofungin what |are | 3 |ergosterol |synthesis |inhibitors |- |answersketoconazole fluconazole miconazole virus |- |answersa |small, |infectious |agent |that |is |only |able |to |multiply |within |the |living |cells |of |other | organisms, |including |animals, |plants, |and |bacteria describe |oseltamivir |(tamiflu) |- |answers- |a |neuraminidase |inhibitor |that |treats |influenza
|neuraminidase |is |an |enzyme |that |allows |the |spread |of |the |virus |from |cell |to |cell
|it |prevents |neighbouring |cells |from |being |infected |with |the |virus describe |acyclovir |- |answers- |taken |up |into |infected |cells |and |the |virus |activates |acyclovir |to |the | active |form
|active |acyclovir |inhibits |viral |DNA |replication
|treats |herpes, |chickenpox, |shingles what |is |the |major |difference |between |antivirals |and |vaccines? |- |answers- |vaccines |introduce |non- functional |fragments |of |the |virus |to |the |body |prior |to |viral |infections
|so, |vaccines |are |preventative, |while |antivirals |treat |infections |that |are |already |in |the |body what |are |the | 3 |mechanisms |of |action |of |hormonal |contraceptives? |- |answers- |inhibit |hormone | release: |inhibit |the |release |of |gonadotropin-release |hormone |(GnRH) |from |the |hypothalamus, | meaning |the |pituitary |is |not |stimulated |to |release |FSH |and |LH, |resulting |in |no |follicular |maturation | and |the |inhibition |of |ovulation
|inhibit |sperm |migration: |hormonal |contraceptives |commonly |include |progestins, |which |alter |the | secretion |of |the |endocervical |gland |to |a |scant, |thick |fluid |not |optimal |for |sperm |migration
|inhibit |ovum |implantation: |causes |the |endometrium |to |not |fully |develop |making |it |unsuitable |for | implantation |of |a |fertilized |ovum what |is |an |oral |contraceptive? |- |answersa |product |containing |both |an |estrogen |and |a |progestin what |are |the | 3 |types |of |oral |contraceptives |- |answersfixed |combination multiphasic progestin |only

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