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Biol 110 Biol 110 NEWS****NEWS 5/9,18/045/9,18/
1.1. Everything due this week! Reports! Extra Credit!!Everything due this week! Reports! Extra Credit!! 2.2. Final Monday 5/23, at 11:10amFinal Monday 5/23, at 11:10am--1:40pm1:40pm a. ~45a.~45--50 M/C questions50 M/C questions –– 15 from sections I-15 from sections I-IIIIII b. 30 from last section (viruses, plants, humanb.30 from last section (viruses, plants, human physiology, ecology)physiology, ecology) c. Essays: 1 of 2 cumulative, 2 of 3 Section IV. c.Essays: 1 of 2 cumulative, 2 of 3 Section IV. d. Mostly from past exams, or variations of those questions d.Mostly from past exams, or variations of those questions e. Fewe.Few ““big picturebig picture”” questionsquestions 3.3. Bring regular 100 questionBring regular 100 question scantronscantron & pencil& pencil 4.4. Use review sheets, study hard, and good luck!!Use review sheets, study hard, and good luck!! 5.5. Thanks for a Great Semester!!Thanks for a Great Semester!!
Biol 110: Main Themes Biol110: Main Themes 1.1. UnityUnity^ – biomolecules–biomolecules, properties of cells, properties of cells
- – StructureStructure ÆÆ Function!!! (CHNOPS,Function!!! (CHNOPS, carbocarbo,, protprot, NA, lipid), NA, lipid) 2.2. DiversityDiversity^ – meiosis/sex/genetics, mutation,–meiosis/sex/genetics, mutation, evolution, changing environmentsevolution, changing environments 3.3. GeneticsGenetics^ – variation;–variation;^ MutationsMutations^ – – new variationsnew variations 4.4. EvolutionEvolution – natural selection of new variations;–natural selection of new variations; higher freq. In populations!higher freq. In populations!
- – Vast diversity of prokaryotes,Vast diversity of prokaryotes, protistsprotists, fungi, plants &, fungi, plants & animalsanimals 5.5. Physiological FunctionPhysiological Function^ (Plant, human) –(Plant, human)– cell/organcell/organ structures fill the biological need/function (evolved)structures fill the biological need/function (evolved) 6.6. WebWeb^ (complex interplay) of interactions in(complex interplay) of interactions in Communities and Ecosystems Communities and Ecosystems /biosphere/biosphere
- •^ Humans are changing the environment too fast for life to keep up!!Humans are changing the environment too fast for life to keep up!!
Ch. 1: Overview Ch. 1: Overview
Molecules of LifeMolecules of Life
1. 1. All things are made up of the same units ofAll things are made up of the same units of
matter:matter:
a.a. (^) Atoms (protons, neutrons, electrons), moleculesAtoms (protons, neutrons, electrons), molecules b. b. (^) CHNOPSCHNOPS
2. 2. Living things are made of up of a certainLiving things are made of up of a certain
subset of molecules:subset of molecules:
- – (^) nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipidsnucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
HomeostasisHomeostasis
1. 1. Maintenance of internal environmentMaintenance of internal environment
within range suitable for cell activitieswithin range suitable for cell activities
- – Eg: Pancreas maintains level of sugar inEg: Pancreas maintains level of sugar in blood by secreting hormones (to liver)blood by secreting hormones (to liver)
- – Cell level?Cell level?
- – Metabolism, membrane transport, etc…Metabolism, membrane transport, etc…..
Scientific Method Scientific Method
1.1. Observe phenomenonObserve phenomenon
2.2. Develop hypothesesDevelop hypotheses
3.3.^ Make predictionsMake predictions
4.4.^ Devise test of predictionsDevise test of predictions
5.5. Carry out test and analyze resultsCarry out test and analyze results
Ch. 2A Ch. 2A
Most CommonMost Common
Elements in LifeElements in Life
Oxygen Oxygen
HydrogenHydrogen
CarbonCarbon
NitrogenNitrogen
(CHNOPS)
Shell Model Shell Model
1.First shell 1.First shell
a.Lowest energya.Lowest energy
b.b.Holds 1 orbital with up to 2Holds 1 orbital with up to 2 electronselectrons
2.Second shell2.Second shell
a.4a.4 orbitalsorbitals hold up to 8hold up to 8 electrons (electrons ( OCTET RULEOCTET RULE ))
CALCIUM 20p+ , 20e-
Important Bonds inImportant Bonds in
Biological MoleculesBiological Molecules
Ionic Bonds Ionic Bonds
Covalent BondsCovalent Bonds
Hydrogen BondsHydrogen Bonds
Ch. 3Ch. 3^ Cell TheoryCell Theory
- Every organism is composed of1) Every organism is composed of one or more cellsone or more cells
- Cell is smallest unit having2) Cell is smallest unit having properties of lifeproperties of life
- Continuity of life arises from3) Continuity of life arises from growth and division of singlegrowth and division of single cellscells ---- Cells arise only fromCells arise only from preexisting cellspreexisting cells
ProkaryoteProkaryote vs.vs. EukaryoteEukaryote
1.1. No membrane-No membrane-boundbound nucleusnucleus 2.2. Peptidoglycan cell wallPeptidoglycancell wall
3.3.^ No membNomemb..--boundbound organellesorganelles 4.4. No cytoskeletonNo cytoskeleton 5.5. Simple flagellumSimple flagellum 6.6. Smaller ribosomesSmallerribosomes 7.7.^ Division by binary fissionDivision by binary fission
1.1. MembraneMembrane--boundbound ““truetrue”” nucleusnucleus 2.2. polysaccharide cell wall (ifpolysaccharide cell wall (if present)present) 3.3. Many membraneMany membrane--boundbound orgnellesorgnelles 4.4.^ Extensive cytoskeletonExtensive cytoskeleton 5.5.^ Microtubule flagella/ciliaMicrotubule flagella/cilia 6.6. LargeLarge ribosomesribosomes 7.7. Division by Mitosis orDivision by Mitosis or MeiosisMeiosis
frog egg3 mm
Typical plant cell10-100 μm
mitochondrion1-5 μm
chloroplast2-10 μm
human redblood cell 7-8 μmdiameter
Trypanosoma (protozoan) 25 μm long
Chlamydomonas (green alga) 5-6 μm long
Poliovirus30 nm
HIV(AIDS virus) 100 nm T4 bacteriophage225 nm long
tobacco mosaic virus 300 nm long
DNA molecule2 nm diameter UNAIDED VISION
ELECRON MICROSCOPES (DOWN TO 0.5 NM)
LIGHT MICROSCOPE (DOWN TO 200 NM)
Escherichia coli (bacterium) 1-5 μm long
1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 meter, or 0.4 inch 1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1,000 meter 1 micrometer (μm) = 1/1,000,000 meter 1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 meter 1 meter = 10^2 cm = 10^3 mm = 10 6 μm = 10^9 nm
1mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.5 nm
OrganellesOrganelles
Fluid Mosaic ModelFluid Mosaic Model
1.Membrane is a 1.Membrane is a mosaicmosaic ofof a.a. PhospholipidsPhospholipids b.b. GlycolipidsGlycolipids c.c. SterolsSterols d.d. ProteinsProteins 1)1) ReceptorReceptor 2)2) RecognitionRecognition** 3)3) AdhesionAdhesion 4)4) Passive transportersPassive transporters 5)5) Active transportersActive transporters 6)6) CommunicationCommunication**
2.Most phospholipids and some proteins can drift through 2.Most phospholipids and some proteins can drift through membranemembrane a.a. Proteins adrift in a sea of lipidsProteins adrift in a sea of lipids
Structure of Cell Membranes Structure of Cell Membranes
Ch. 4: Ch. 4: The Role of ATPThe Role of ATP
- CellsCells ““earnearn”” ATP inATP in exergonicexergonic reactionsreactions
2.2.^ CellsCells ““spendspend”” ATP inATP in^ endergonicendergonic^ reactionsreactions
P (^) P P
ribose
adenine
ENERGY CURRENCY!!
Energetic coupling
Activation Energy Activation Energy
- For a reaction to 1.For a reaction to occur, an energyoccur, an energy barrier must bebarrier must be surmountedsurmounted 2. Enzymes make the 2.Enzymes make the energy barrierenergy barrier smallersmaller - – (^) Increase rateIncrease rate ÆÆ reach equilibrium!!reach equilibrium!!
activation energywithout enzyme activation energywith enzyme
released^ energy reactionby the
products
substancestarting
ENZYME!
direction of reaction
Membrane Crossing Membrane Crossing
MechanismsMechanisms
1.1.^ Diffusion (passive) across lipidDiffusion (passive)across lipid bilayerbilayer
2.2. Facilitated diffusion (passive transport):Facilitated diffusion (passive transport): with concwithconc’’nn gradient = Highgradient = High ÆÆ (^) LowLow
3.3.^ Active transport: against gradient;Active transport: against gradient; requires energy/ATP (Lowrequires energy/ATP (Low ÆÆ High)High)
4.4.^ Endocytosis –Endocytosis– egeg:: PhagocytosisPhagocytosis
5.5.^ ExocytosisExocytosis
Tonicity and Osmosis Tonicity and Osmosis
2% sucrose
water 10% sucrose (^) 2% sucrose
Hypo- Hyper- Iso-
B. B. Meiosis I & IIMeiosis I & II -- StagesStages
Homologs separate!! 2n Æ n
Prophase I Prophase I (^) Metaphase IMetaphase I Anaphase IAnaphase I^ TelophaseTelophase II
there is no DNA replicationthere is no DNA replication between the two divisionsbetween the two divisions^ Sister chromatids separate (~mitosis, but^ n^ Æ n )
Prophase IIProphase II (^) Metaphase IIMetaphase II Anaphase IIAnaphase II^ TelophaseTelophase IIII
Factors Contributing toFactors Contributing to
Variation Among OffspringVariation Among Offspring
1. 1. Crossing overCrossing over during prophase Iduring prophase I
2. 2. Random alignmentRandom alignment ofof
chromosomes at metaphase Ichromosomes at metaphase I
3. 3. Random combination of gametesRandom combination of gametes
at fertilization at fertilization
Ch. 8: Ch. 8: Genetic TermsGenetic Terms
A pair of homologous chromosomes
A gene locus
A pair of alleles
Three pairs of genes
1.1. GenesGenes 2.2. AllelesAlleles 3.3. HomozygousHomozygous 4.4. HeterozygousHeterozygous 5.5. DiploidDiploid 6.6. HaploidHaploid
7.7. P, F1, F2P, F1, F 8.8. Monohybrid 3:1Monohybrid 3: 9.9. DihybridDihybrid 9:3:3:19:3:3: 10.10. SegregationSegregation 11.11. Independent AssortmentIndependent Assortment
12.12. DominantDominant 13.13. RecessiveRecessive 14.14. GenotypeGenotype 15.15. PhenotypePhenotype
A. A. FF 11 && FF 22 Results of OneResults of One
Monohybrid Cross (Mendel)Monohybrid Cross (Mendel)
Dominant v. Recessive (hidden)
NO Blending! Æ segregation of traits/alleles
Recessive trait reemerges, 3:1 Phenotypic ratio
Explanation of Mendel’ Explanation of Mendel’ss
Dihybrid ResultsDihybridResults
- If the two traits are • If the two traits are
coded for bycoded for by genesgenes
on separateon separate
chromosomeschromosomes ,,
- –^ sixteen gametesixteen gamete combinations arecombinations are possiblepossible^
aB
AB AB
Ab ab
Ab
aB
ab
1/
1/
1/ 1/
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/
AaBb Aabb aaBbaabb
AABB AABb AaBB AaBb AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb AaBBAaBb aaBB aaBb
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/ 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/ 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/ 1/16 1/16 (^) 1/16 1/
AaBb x AaBb
9 A_B_ 3 A_bb 3 aaB_ 1 aabb
Independent Assortment Independent Assortment
Metaphase IMetaphase I
Metaphase II:Metaphase II:
Gametes:Gametes:
1/4 1/4 ABAB (^) 1/41/4 abab 1/41/4 AbAb 1/41/4 aBaB
AA AA AA AA
AA AA AA AA
AA AA AA AA
BB BB
BB^ BB
BB BB
BB^ BB BB BB BB BB
aa aa aa aa
aa aa aa aa
aa aa aa aa
bb bb bbbb
bb^ bb bb^ bb bb bb bb bb
OR OR
- •^ Mixing and Matching of maternal & paternalMixing and Matching of maternal & paternal combinations of chromosomes (2combinations of chromosomes (2^ nn^ combos).combos).
Ch. 9: Watson Ch. 9: Watson--
Crick ModelCrick Model
- DNA consists ofDNA consists of twotwo nucleotidenucleotide
strandsstrands
2.2. Strands run inStrands run in oppositeopposite
directionsdirections
- Strands are held together byStrands are held together by
hydrogen bondshydrogen bonds betweenbetween basesbases
4.4. AA -- T (2 HT (2 H--bonds)bonds) && CC -- G (3G (
HH--bonds)bonds)
- Molecule is aMolecule is a double helixdouble helix
DNA DNA
Replication:Replication:
“Semi “Semi-- ConservativeConservative””
new old^ new old
- Each parent strand 1.Each parent strand remains intactremains intact
- Every daughter DNA2.Every daughter DNA molecule ismolecule is halfhalf ““oldold”” and halfand half ““newnew””
Ch. 12 Ch. 12
Darwin’Darwin’s Evidence fors Evidence for EvolEvol’’nn
1.1. BiogeographyBiogeography 2.2. Comparative MorphologyComparative Morphology –– body plans of majorbody plans of major groupsgroups 3.3. Comparative AnatomyComparative Anatomy –– unrelated animals haveunrelated animals have similar structures; vestigialsimilar structures; vestigial 4.4. Geology/FossilsGeology/Fossils –– different at different depthsdifferent at different depths
- • Earth is very old!!Earth is very old!! 5.5. GalapagosGalapagos finchesfinches –– body forms related tobody forms related to lifestyles;lifestyles;
- • Competition & Natural Selection!!Competition & Natural Selection!!
- ‘ – ‘AA populationpopulation can change over time when individualscan change over time when individuals differ in one or more heritable traits differ in one or more heritable traits that are responsiblethat are responsible forfor differences in the ability to survive and reproducedifferences in the ability to survive and reproduce’’
- • Populations evolve, NOT individuals!!Populations evolve, NOT individuals!!
- • No ACQUIRED characteristics passed to later generations.No ACQUIRED characteristics passed to later generations.
Gene MutationsGene Mutations
1.1.^ The ONLY source of NEW alleles!The ONLY source of NEW alleles!
- –^ Infrequent but inevitableInfrequent but inevitable
2.2. Lethal mutationsLethal mutations ÆÆ selected againstselected against 3.3. Neutral mutationsNeutral mutations 4.4.^ Advantageous mutationsAdvantageous mutations^ ÆÆ^ selected forselected for
[End Main Review][End Main Review]**
Ch. 25Ch. 25
1.1. Nervous systemNervous system a.a. Resting PotentialResting Potential (Na+ out = more +, K+ in = less +)(Na+ out = more +, K+ in = less +) b.b. Action potentialAction potential (All or nothing!) = Na+ channels open at(All or nothing!) = Na+ channels open at trigger zone, rush in (trigger zone, rush in ( DepolarizationDepolarization )) –– all orall or nothing/thresholdnothing/threshold c.c. RecoveryRecovery: (results in: (results in RepolarizationRepolarization ))
- K+ channels open, goes out 1)K+ channels open, goes out
- Na+/K+ Pump (active transport, ATP) = Na back out, K back in2)Na+/K+ Pump (active transport, ATP) = Na back out, K back in ÆÆ resting potential restored and ready for new stimulusresting potential restored and ready for new stimulus d.d. SynapsesSynapses andand NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters^ (affect ion channels in target cell)(affect ion channels in target cell)
2.2. Central Nervous systemCentral Nervous system^ – – BrainBrain andand Spinal cordSpinal cord
3.3. Peripheral nervous systemPeripheral nervous system – – extend to rest of bodyextend to rest of body a.a. SomaticSomatic = motor= motor fxnsfxns^ (to and from muscle, tendons and skin)(to and from muscle, tendons and skin) b.b. AutonomicAutonomic = Visceral/internal organs;= Visceral/internal organs; 1) Sympathetic 1)Sympathetic (fight or flight) &(fight or flight) & 2) Parasympathetic 2)Parasympathetic (^) (housekeeping, at rest)(housekeeping, at rest)
input
trigger conducting output
Three Classes ofThree Classes of
NeuronsNeurons
1. 1. Sensory neuronsSensory neurons (“(“receiversreceivers””)) 2. 2. InterneuronsInterneurons (^) ((““mediatorsmediators””)) 3. 3. Motor neuronsMotor neurons ((““commanderscommanders””)) - • In the simplestIn the simplest reflex arcsreflex arcs, sensory, sensory neurons synapse directly on motorneurons synapse directly on motor neuronsneurons
PNS: 1.Somatic 2.Autonomic 1.Parasympathetic 2.Sympathetic
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM brain spinal cord sensorynerves axons of motor nerves
subdivisionsomatic These nerves carry(motor functions) signals to and fromskeletal muscles, tendons, and skin.
subdivisionautonomic (visceral functions)These nerves carry internal organs (gut,signals to and from heart, glands, etc.). parasympatheticnerves sympatheticnerves
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
action potential resting potential resting potential
resting potential restored action potential resting potential
K + Na+
Na+
unsheathed node axon
“Jellyrolled” Schwann cells of an axon’s myelin sheath
Fig. 30.11, p. 494
nodes
Saltatory Conduction
Ch. 23Ch. 23 1.1. (^) Nonspecific ImmunityNonspecific Immunity a.a. BarriersBarriers b.b. ComplementComplement c.c. InflammationInflammation
2. 2. Specific ImmunitySpecific Immunity – memory cells,–memory cells, effectoreffector cellscells a.a.^ AntibodyAntibody--mediated Immunitymediated Immunity^ – – B cells, MHC/APC,B cells, MHC/APC, helper Thelper T [[extracellularextracellular pathogens]pathogens] b.b.^ CellCell--mediated Immunitymediated Immunity –– APC, helper T,APC, helper T, TcTc, NK, NK [intracellular pathogens][intracellular pathogens]
3.3. (^) When Immunity goes wrong or failsWhen Immunity goes wrong or fails a.a. Autoimmune diseaseAutoimmune disease –– MS, rheumatoid arthritisMS, rheumatoid arthritis b.b. AllergiesAllergies –– IgEIgE, Mast Cells, Histamine, Mast Cells, Histamine c.c. ImmunodeficienciesImmunodeficiencies –– egeg: AIDS: AIDS
B. Key Components of B. Key Components of
Immune ResponseImmune Response
1. 1. (^) MHC markersMHC markers (^) == ““tagstags”” that sound thethat sound the ““alarmalarm”” 2. 2. (^) AntigenAntigen--presenting cells (presenting cells (APCsAPCs)) = “=“scoutsscouts”” a.a. B cellsB cells b.b. DendriticDendritic cellscells c.c. MacrophagesMacrophages d.d.^ …….many other cells of the body.many other cells of the body…….. 3. 3. (^) Helper T cells (Helper T cells (ThTh)) = “=“buglersbuglers”” rally the troops!rally the troops! 4. 4. (^) EffectorEffector cytoxiccytoxic T cells (T cells (TcTc)) (^) == ““skilledskilled swordsmenswordsmen”” 5. 5. (^) Natural killer cells (NK)Natural killer cells (NK) (^) == ““frontline swordsmenfrontline swordsmen”” 6. 6. B cellsB cells = “=“archers andarchers and taggerstaggers””
Overview of Interactions Overview of Interactions
Naive helper T cell
Naive B cell
Antigen- presenting cell
ActivatedActivated helper T cellhelper T cell
Effector B cellEffectorB cell (plasma cell)(plasma cell)
Naive cytotoxic T cell
EffectorEffector cytotoxiccytotoxic T cellT cell
Antibody - mediated response Cell - mediated response
(APC)
interleukinsinterleukins (^) interleukinsinterleukins
