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Application Exercise 3
Proponents of Behavioral Learning Theory believe that we are largely products
of our environment. That is, the way we behave, our personal habits, our likes
and dislikes, and our emotional responses are primarily learned through
principles of Operant and Classical Conditioning.
Based on our discussions in class as well as the textbook’s chapter (ch. 6) on
Learning:
1. Provide everyday examples from your own experiences of each of the
following terms at work -- in other words, how do or how have these
terms/principles operated to shape and influence your own behavior and those
around you?
2. Be sure to clearly specify how the respective terms or principles
operate in your examples. In other words, how do the examples you are
providing fit the particular terms or principles?
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Presentation Punishment
Removal Punishment
Extinction
Stimulus Control (discrimination)
Memory and InformationMemory and InformationMemory and InformationMemory and Information
ProcessingProcessingProcessingProcessing
Which penny is correct?Which penny is correct?Which penny is correct?Which penny is correct?
Which penny is correct?Which penny is correct? Which penny is correct?Which penny is correct?
Sometimes can’t remember a
word??
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: forgotten
information feels as though it is just out of
reach
Talking with friends
Taking an exam: (I know this definition—
what’s the word?)
Human Memory: Basic QuestionsHuman Memory: Basic QuestionsHuman Memory: Basic QuestionsHuman Memory: Basic Questions
1.1. How does info get into memory? 1.1.How does info get into memory?How does info get into memory?How does info get into memory?
2.2. How is info maintained in memory?2.2.How is info maintained in memory?How is info maintained in memory?How is info maintained in memory?
- How is info pulled back out of How is info pulled back out ofHow is info pulled back out of
How is info pulled back out of
memory? memory?memory?
memory?
Retrieval cont.
Recovering the information from memory
stores
Retrieval research include how people
search memory and how some retrieval
methods are more effective than others
E.g., associations, repetition
One more piece that helps us figure out
the puzzle of how we forget.
Sequence of Info. ProcessingSequence of Info. Processing Sequence of Info. ProcessingSequence of Info. Processing
Sensory SensorySensory
Sensory
MemoryMemoryMemoryMemory
LongLongLongLong----termtermtermterm
Memory MemoryMemory
Memory
Short ShortShort
Short-
-term termterm
term
MemoryMemoryMemoryMemory
Initial ProcessingInitial ProcessingInitial ProcessingInitial Processing
RehearsalRehearsalRehearsalRehearsal
andandandand
CodingCodingCodingCoding
Retrieval RetrievalRetrieval
Retrieval
RepetitionRepetitionRepetitionRepetition
Forgotten ForgottenForgotten
Forgotten
Forgotten ForgottenForgotten
Forgotten
AttentionAttentionAttentionAttention
Attention AttentionAttention
Attention
Encoding: Getting Info Into Memory
Encoding: Getting Info Into MemoryEncoding: Getting Info Into Memory
Encoding: Getting Info Into Memory
You need to pay attentionpay attentionpay attentionpay attention to info if you
intend to remember it
AttentioAttentioAttentioAttention involves focusing awareness
on a narrowed range of stimuli or
events
Selective attention Selective attentionSelective attention
Selective attention is critical to
everyday functioning
Just imagine how poorly you would
function if everything in your
environment demanded equal attention
Encoding: Getting Info Into MemoryEncoding: Getting Info Into MemoryEncoding: Getting Info Into MemoryEncoding: Getting Info Into Memory
Attention acts like a filter that screens
out most stimuli
Cocktail party phenomenon: Can
hear your name)
people have difficulty if they try to
focus their attention on two or more
inputs simultaneously
Divided attention impairs
performance (e.g., cell
phones/texting!!!)
Enriching Encoding:Enriching Encoding:Enriching Encoding:Enriching Encoding:
Improving Memory
Improving MemoryImproving Memory
Improving Memory
Other ways to enrich the encoding process and improve
memory
Structural Encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of
the stimulus; words flashed on a screen, we would look at
how they were printed (font, size) or length of the words
(how many letters); may lead to..
Phonemic Encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like
Semantic Encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal
input or what the words represent.
Levels-of Processing Theory: proposes the deeper level of
processing, the more meaningful the memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory MemorySensory Memory
Sensory Memory
Information comes into you and
reaches your senses (sensory
memory)
Information is constantly coming in
If you don’t pay attention to it ever so
briefly, it’s gone!!! – Forgotten!!
Exact replica of an environmental
message which usually lasts for about
¼ second
Think Sparkler!
Sensory Memory allows the sensation of a
visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a
brief moment after the sensory stimulation is
over
For vision, people see an afterimage rather than
the actual stimulus
With a sparkler you see the afterimage when
you move it fast enough (of a circle) rather than
single stimulus points (or separate points of
light)
ShortShort- ShortShort---term Memoryterm Memoryterm Memoryterm Memory
the memory system for holding athe memory system for holding athe memory system for holding athe memory system for holding a
limited
limitedlimited
limited amount of unrehearsed info
amount of unrehearsed infoamount of unrehearsed info
amount of unrehearsed info
for forfor
for short time
short timeshort time
short time
- Capacity is limitedCapacity is limitedCapacity is limitedCapacity is limited
(7 plus or minus 2) = 5 to 9 bits/chunks(7 plus or minus 2) = 5 to 9 bits/chunks(7 plus or minus 2) = 5 to 9 bits/chunks(7 plus or minus 2) = 5 to 9 bits/chunks
- Amount of time info can be held isAmount of time info can be held isAmount of time info can be held isAmount of time info can be held is
limited (limited (limited (limited (up to about 20 secondsup to about 20 secondsup to about 20 secondsup to about 20 seconds))))
- One way to hold info in shortOne way to hold info in shortOne way to hold info in shortOne way to hold info in short----termtermtermterm
memory longer is bymemory longer is bymemory longer is bymemory longer is byrehearsalrehearsal rehearsalrehearsal
ShortShort- ShortShort---term Memory (term Memory (term Memory (term Memory (ConConCon’Con’’t’ttt))))
- The longer we can keep info in STM., The longer we can keep info in STM.,The longer we can keep info in STM.,
The longer we can keep info in STM.,
the better our chances of transferringthe better our chances of transferringthe better our chances of transferringthe better our chances of transferring
it to LTM.it to LTM.it to LTM.it to LTM.
- One way info is often lost from STM?One way info is often lost from STM?One way info is often lost from STM?One way info is often lost from STM?
Principle of DisplacementPrinciple of DisplacementPrinciple of DisplacementPrinciple of Displacement
Info in short-term memory is pushed
out (displaced)(displaced)(displaced)(displaced) by newer info if there
is no rehearsal
ShortShortShortShort----term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)
ShortShortShortShort----term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)
ShortShortShortShort----term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)term Memory (continued)
DuerfdnumgiSDuerfdnumgiSDuerfdnumgiSDuerfdnumgiS
DuerfDuerfDuerfDuerf---DnumgiS-DnumgiSDnumgiSDnumgiS
Sigmund FreudSigmund FreudSigmund FreudSigmund Freud
These examples demonstrate
These examples demonstrateThese examples demonstrate
These examples demonstrate
2 important processes2 important processes2 important processes2 important processes
- how we organize info is very how we organize info is veryhow we organize info is very
how we organize info is very
importantimportantimportantimportant -------- The better organized itThe better organized itThe better organized itThe better organized it
is the better STM can handle it andis the better STM can handle it andis the better STM can handle it andis the better STM can handle it and
then transfer it to LTM. then transfer it to LTM.then transfer it to LTM.
then transfer it to LTM.
Chunking -------- grouping familiar stimuligrouping familiar stimuligrouping familiar stimuligrouping familiar stimuli
for storage as a single unitfor storage as a single unitfor storage as a single unitfor storage as a single unit
- The TheThe
The interplay
interplayinterplay
interplay of STM & LTM
of STM & LTMof STM & LTM
of STM & LTM --
-- LTM
LTMLTM
LTM
can help out or assist STM.can help out or assist STM.can help out or assist STM.can help out or assist STM.
Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
STM is not limited to phoneme encoding and decay is
not the only process for the loss of information
Phonological Loop: at work when you use recitation
to temporarily hold on to a phone number
Visuospatial sketchpad: permits people to
temporarily hold and manipulate visual images
Central Executive: controls attention, switching the
focus and dividing as needed; Coordinates actions of
other models
Episodic Buffer : a temporary, limited capacity store
that allows the various components of working
memory to integrate information that serves as an
interface between working memory and long-term
memory
LongLong- LongLong--term Memory-term Memoryterm Memoryterm Memory
The memory system for holding a
large amount of info for a very long
time.
3 Types of Long Term Memory
Types of Long Term MemoryTypes of Long Term Memory
Types of Long Term Memory
- Episodic1. Episodic 1. Episodic1. Episodic
- Semantic2. Semantic2. Semantic2. Semantic
- Procedural3. Procedural3. Procedural3. Procedural
1. Episodic
1. Episodic1. Episodic
1. Episodic -
- Our memory of our Our memory of ourOur memory of our
Our memory of our
personal experiences.personal experiences.personal experiences.personal experiences.
- Stored asStored asStored asStored as Mental ImagesMental ImagesMental ImagesMental Images
- space & time cues helpful forspace & time cues helpful forspace & time cues helpful forspace & time cues helpful for
retrieval.retrieval.retrieval.retrieval.
- hard to rememberhard to rememberhard to rememberhard to remember -------- unlessunlessunlessunless
something memorable happens something memorable happenssomething memorable happens
something memorable happens
during episode.during episode.during episode.during episode.
Why Do We Forget?
Ineffective Encoding Ineffective EncodingIneffective Encoding
Ineffective Encoding
Attention!!
Pseudoforgetting: information was never
inserted into memory in the first place!
Interference theory
people forget info because of competition
from other material
Retroactive
Proactive
Interference
Two types of Interference:
- Retroactive interference
Formation of new memories hurts
or interferes with retention of old
memories
- Proactive interference
Old memories interfere with the
establishment and recovery of new
memories
Retroactive and proactive interference
Retroactive InhibitionRetroactive Inhibition Retroactive InhibitionRetroactive Inhibition
Newer or later learning interferesNewer or later learning interferesNewer or later learning interferesNewer or later learning interferes
with older learningwith older learningwith older learningwith older learning
OlderOlder OlderOlder
NewerNewerNewerNewer
TimeTimeTimeTime
X
Proactive Inhibition Proactive InhibitionProactive Inhibition
Proactive Inhibition
Old learning interferes with newerOld learning interferes with newerOld learning interferes with newerOld learning interferes with newer
learninglearninglearninglearning
OlderOlder OlderOlder
NewerNewerNewerNewer
TimeTimeTimeTime
X
Motivated Forgetting
Refers to times when it’s better to forget,
or when we consciously try to do so
The evidence for repression:
We do tend to recall more pleasant than
unpleasant things
Some people report not being able to recall
sexual abuse, and documented sexual abuse
is not always recalled in adulthood
However, we may simply rehearse
pleasant events more, not actively
repress bad ones
Improving Everyday Memory
Engage in adequate rehearsal & test self
Overlearning
Schedule distributed practice and
minimize interference
Engage in deep processing
organize information
Enrich encoding with verbal mnemonics
Enrich encoding with visual mnemonics
End of
End ofEnd of
End of
Memory and InformationMemory and InformationMemory and InformationMemory and Information
ProcessingProcessingProcessingProcessing
The Neuroscience of Forgetting
Amnesia: Forgetting caused by physical
problems in the brain
Retrograde amnesia affects events that
happened prior to the point of injury
Often a temporary result of injury
Anterograde amnesia affects events that
happened after the point of injury
Tends to be permanent
However, implicit memory may be spared
Figure 7.16 The anatomy of memory. All the brain structures identified here have
been implicated in efforts to discover the anatomical structures involved in memory.
Although its exact contribution to memory remains the subject of debate, the
hippocampus is thought to play an especially central role in memory.
Photo: Wadsworth collection.
Figure 7.
LevelsLevelsLevelsLevels---of-ofof-of---Processing TheoryProcessing TheoryProcessing TheoryProcessing Theory
LevelsLevelsLevelsLevels---of-ofof-of---Processing TheoryProcessing TheoryProcessing TheoryProcessing Theory
