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Chapter 2
Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE Few events in all of history can rival the significance of the rise of the first complex societies in Mesopotamia. Although these early Mesopotamian societies relied on an agricultural foundation, they also developed true cities and had an urban existence. Mesopotamia developed sophisticated political, religious, and social structures that influenced their neighbors and have survived the millennia since.
The Quest for Order
Mesopotamia , “the land between the rivers”— in this case the Tigris and Euphrates —was the birthplace of the world’s first complex society. The Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia were first in a series of early brilliant cultures in southwest Asia. The cultural and linguistic landscape was enriched and complicated by Semitic migrations. The rapidly growing population of Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C.E. required the establishment of political and social organizations. Without the benefit of earlier examples the Mesopotamians built sophisticated political, social and military structures that allowed them to survive and in fact extend their influence over surrounding regions. Although they never achieved political unification, the Mesopotamian city-states of Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, and Babylon dominated the land between the Tigris and Euphrates for a thousand years. Warfare was common among the Mesopotamian city-states, and occasionally one ruler would temporarily dominate his neighbors and create short-lived empires. In the twenty-fourth century B.C.E. Sargon of Akkad was the first to unite all of Mesopotamia.
A more impressive and long-lasting state would arise during the time of Hammurabi (1792–1750 B.C.E.) and the Babylonians. Hammurabi was a powerful ruler, but he is mainly known for his sophisticated law code. Hammurabi’s code was based on lex talionis , or the “law of retribution,” but it was also shaped by class distinctions. Eventually a new power, the Assyrians , rose to dominate Mesopotamia and beyond. Babylon briefly reasserted its prominence in the sixth century B.C.E. under Nebuchadnezzar.
The Formation of a Complex Society and Sophisticated
Cultural Traditions
The mastery of agriculture allowed for the development of economic specialization and the expansion of trade. Technological advancements such as innovations in bronze ( B.C.E.) and iron metallurgy (1300 B.C.E.), as well as the creation of wheeled vehicles (3000 B.C.E.), also played a role in the expansion of the societies. Shipbuilding – discussed earlier – exploration and trade The Mesopotamians actively pursued long-distance trade with merchants in Arabia, Anatolia, Lebanon, Egypt, Afghanistan, and India. Another aspect of these developing areas was the increasing distance between the haves and have-nots of society. Agriculture made it possible for individuals to become wealthy. The gulf between rich and poor steadily increased, with the kings and nobles positioning themselves at the top because of their status as warriors. A powerful priestly class , acting as intermediaries between humans and the gods, also emerged. In addition, there arose a large slave population , drawn mainly from prisoners of war, criminals and indebted individuals. These societies were also highly patriarchal. Authority of public and private affairs to men.
(Enlil’s destroying the world because people are noisy compared to Yahweh’s punishing the wicked).
The Broader Influence of Mesopotamian Society
Seldom in history has a society been as influential as the Mesopotamians. Their relationship with the Hebrews is a classic example. The Hebrew law code was clearly influenced by Hammurabi’s code. Migrations and settlement in Palestine – The branch under Moses went to Palestine, and formed a federation of 12 tribes, called Israelites. They dominated the region during the reigns of King David (1000-970) and Solomon (970-930). At the same time, these later societies built their own unique cultural achievements. The monotheism of Moses was unlike anything that came from the Mesopotamians. Yahweh , the god of the Hebrews, was both a powerful and a personal god. This view of god would later shape the development of Christianity and Judaism. The Hebrew concept of a covenant introduced a revolutionary concept of a god’s relationship to humans. Polytheism was the norm in the ancient world, and with the brief exception of Akhenaton in Egypt, the Hebrews produced the only monotheistic religion. In some ways polytheistic religions are more logical: something bad happened to you because one of the gods took a dislike to you. If there is only one god, then the perplexing question of why bad things happen to good people becomes an issue. Assyrian and Babylonian Conquests Assyrian conquests were to please their god Ashur. The Assyrians didn’t make the conscious decision to be evil; rather, they conquered territory for Ashur’s glory. As with most other societies in the ancient world, the Assyrians were very religious people and incredibly active missionaries for Ashur. One can ponder whether the bloody, violent Ashur created the Assyrians in his image or the bloody, violent Assyrians created Ashur in their image.
The Early Jewish Community – developed after some exiled Israelites returned to Judea after the Babylonian conquest The Phoenicians, developed independent city-states along the Mediterranean after 3000bc. Trade Routes: They influenced other societies through maritime trade and communication networks. In addition to their role as maritime explorers and merchants, they invented alphabetic writing.
The Indo-European Migrations
The Mespotamians were also influenced by other societies , some from regions far beyond the boundaries of the Tigris and Euphrates. The most important were tribes , speaking a variety of Indo-European languages, who migrated into the region at various times during the second and third millennium B.C.E. The Indo-Europeans , originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a common linguistic foundation from India through Western Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi, and Farsi as well as most European languages were descendants of the Indo-European language. These tribes had domesticated the horse by around 4000 B.C.E. **The most influential Indo-European migrants into the area around Mesopotamia were the Hittites , who settled in central Anatolia around 2000 B.C.E. Their construction of light, horse-drawn chariots and their mastery of advanced iron metallurgy made them formidable warriors. These innovations did not exist in a vacuum, however, and other peoples quickly borrowed them. The Indo-Europeans eventually traveled east to the Tarim Basin in western China, south into Persia and India and west to Greece, Italy, Germany, and France, Hammurabi Kings
