Early Societies in South Asia

India is a country with an extraordinarily brilliant, in some ways almost unmatched, cultural and religious tradition.

At the same time the Indian political world, marred by fragmentation and invasion, has been chaotic. India is also

one of the oldest societies, with the unique Harappan civilization stretching back to at least 2500 B.C.E. The arrival

of the Indo-European Aryans around 1500 B.C.E. brought profound political, religious and cultural change.

Eventually the combination of native Dravidian and Aryan concepts gave rise to a rich and varied intellectual world.

Hinduism, the dominant religion in India, is the best example of this evolving process.

Harappan Society

The Harappan society, centered around the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, extends back to around 3000 B.C.E.

While their written records can not yet be read with any certainty, it is assumed that they spoke a Dravidian

language. These sites, in relation to their size and layout, are the largest for their age and unlike any other cities of

the ancient world. Mohenjo-Daro possessed a population of up to 40,000. Religiously their main gods and

goddesses were fertility deities, and there is evidence that these figures and concepts survived in various forms in

later Hinduism. Population pressures and ecological degradation led to their decline around 2000 B.C.E.

The Indo-European Migration and Early Aryan India

The total collapse of the Harappan society coincided with the arrival into India of an Indo-European tribe, the

Aryans (“noble people”). The Indo-Europeans, originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a common

linguistic foundation from India through Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi,

Farsi, and most European languages are descendants of Indo-European. Aryans subdued the native Dravidians, but

also fought amongst themselves. Eventually the Aryans, arguably the first people to domesticate horses, came to

rely more on agriculture than herding. They also began to establish more structured political institutions and built

regional kingdoms, but never came close to substantial political unification. Much of our information about the

Aryans comes from the collection of religious hymns known as the Vedas, especially the Rig Veda.

Eventually the Aryans established the caste system in India. The Aryans used the term varna, meaning color, to

refer to the different social classes, which leads scholars to assume that the first distinctions may have been based on

race. By around 1000 B.C.E. the four main castes were the brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and nobles),

vaishyas (artisans and merchants), and shudras (peasants and serfs). A few centuries later the untouchables were

added. Eventually thousands of sub-castes (jati), based mainly on occupation, would arise. The society would

remain staunchly patriarchal as expressed in the Lawbook of Manu and by the practice of sati.

Religion in the Vedic Age

The religious views of the Aryans at the time of their entry into India are best expressed in the Rig Veda. Indra, a

violent and militaristic storm god, was the main god in the early days of the Aryans. Questions of ethical behavior

were not completely ignored. Varuna watched over human behavior and sent sinners to the House of Clay and

rewarded the virtuous by admitting them into the World of the Fathers. The most important aspects of these early

religious views centered around the performance of rituals, many of them dealing with sacrifice.

Eventually some Aryans, both dissatisfied by the rituals and inspired by Dravidian notions such as reincarnation,

brought about a startling transformation of religious thought. The best indication of this evolution of Aryan religion

is the collection of writings known as the Upanishads. The emphasis shifted away from the heroic adventures of

Indra and towards an examination of the relationship between every individual and Brahma, the universal soul.

Concepts such as samsara, the transmigration of the soul, and karma, the sum of good and bad deeds that would

determine one’s position in the next life, came to dominate Indian thought. As expressed in the Upanishads, the

main goal was to escape the pain and suffering of eternal rebirth and reach the state of moksha. Asceticism and

meditation were the two principal means of achieving this goal. Indian religious thinkers emphasized that the

material world was an illusion and stressed the virtues of self-control, mercy and honesty. Pacifism and

vegetarianism played a role in this life.

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India is a country with an extraordinarily brilliant, in some ways almost unmatched, cultural and religious tradition. At the same time the Indian political world, marred by fragmentation and invasion, has been chaotic. India is also one of the oldest societies, with the unique Harappan civilization stretching back to at least 2500 B.C.E. The arrival of the Indo-European Aryans around 1500 B.C.E. brought profound political, religious and cultural change. Eventually the combination of native Dravidian and Aryan concepts gave rise to a rich and varied intellectual world. Hinduism, the dominant religion in India, is the best example of this evolving process. Harappan Society The Harappan society, centered around the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, extends back to around 3000 B.C.E. While their written records can not yet be read with any certainty, it is assumed that they spoke a Dravidian language. These sites, in relation to their size and layout, are the largest for their age and unlike any other cities of the ancient world. Mohenjo-Daro possessed a population of up to 40,000. Religiously their main gods and goddesses were fertility deities, and there is evidence that these figures and concepts survived in various forms in later Hinduism. Population pressures and ecological degradation led to their decline around 2000 B.C.E. The Indo-European Migration and Early Aryan India The total collapse of the Harappan society coincided with the arrival into India of an Indo-European tribe, the Aryans (“noble people”). The Indo-Europeans, originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a common linguistic foundation from India through Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi, Farsi, and most European languages are descendants of Indo-European. Aryans subdued the native Dravidians, but also fought amongst themselves. Eventually the Aryans, arguably the first people to domesticate horses, came to rely more on agriculture than herding. They also began to establish more structured political institutions and built regional kingdoms, but never came close to substantial political unification. Much of our information about the Aryans comes from the collection of religious hymns known as the Vedas , especially the Rig Veda. Eventually the Aryans established the caste system in India. The Aryans used the term varna , meaning color, to refer to the different social classes, which leads scholars to assume that the first distinctions may have been based on race. By around 1000 B.C.E. the four main castes were the brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and nobles), vaishyas (artisans and merchants), and shudras (peasants and serfs). A few centuries later the untouchables were added. Eventually thousands of sub-castes ( jati ), based mainly on occupation, would arise. The society would remain staunchly patriarchal as expressed in the Lawbook of Manu and by the practice of sati. Religion in the Vedic Age The religious views of the Aryans at the time of their entry into India are best expressed in the Rig Veda. Indra, a violent and militaristic storm god, was the main god in the early days of the Aryans. Questions of ethical behavior were not completely ignored. Varuna watched over human behavior and sent sinners to the House of Clay and rewarded the virtuous by admitting them into the World of the Fathers. The most important aspects of these early religious views centered around the performance of rituals, many of them dealing with sacrifice. Eventually some Aryans, both dissatisfied by the rituals and inspired by Dravidian notions such as reincarnation, brought about a startling transformation of religious thought. The best indication of this evolution of Aryan religion is the collection of writings known as the Upanishads. The emphasis shifted away from the heroic adventures of Indra and towards an examination of the relationship between every individual and Brahma, the universal soul. Concepts such as samsara , the transmigration of the soul, and karma , the sum of good and bad deeds that would determine one’s position in the next life, came to dominate Indian thought. As expressed in the Upanishads , the main goal was to escape the pain and suffering of eternal rebirth and reach the state of moksha. Asceticism and meditation were the two principal means of achieving this goal. Indian religious thinkers emphasized that the material world was an illusion and stressed the virtues of self-control, mercy and honesty. Pacifism and vegetarianism played a role in this life.

Early Society in East Asia

Human beings have inhabited east Asia since at least two hundred thousand years ago. The domestication of rice began around 7000 B.C.E., and Neolithic societies such as the Yangshao rose in the valley of the Yellow River by approximately 5000 B.C.E. Early dynasties such as the Xia, Shang, and Zhou saw the rise of a distinctive and in many ways uniquely secular society. Politically, none of the early dynasties achieved centralization until the Qin unification in 221 B.C.E. Nevertheless, despite centuries of unstable political decentralization and at times outright warfare, the Chinese moved inexorably toward the establishment of a remarkably sophisticated political and social structure. Works such as the Zhou classics, and especially the Book of Songs , remained the foundations of Chinese thought for centuries. Political Organization in Early China The first societies in China developed along the fertile banks of the Yellow River, despite the fact that its long history of devastating flooding has earned it the nickname “China’s Sorrow.” The Yangshao society, centered around the neolithic village at Banpo, provides the earliest complete archeological evidence. Around 2200 B.C.E. the first recognized dynasty in Chinese history, the Xia, began in the Yellow River valley. Until the recent discovery of sites such as Erlitou, however, this dynasty has been more legend than reality. Much more is known about the Shang dynasty, which lasted from 1766 to 1122 B.C.E. Sites such as Ao and Yin provide valuable information, especially the large and elaborate tombs of the rulers. At the heart of Shang power was their monopolization of bronze metallurgy, which allowed for the rise of a powerful military state.

Shang Cities - Ao: prominent feature of this site is the massive wall that surrounded the city

center, estimated to have originally been about 10 meters high and 20 meters wide. There is

evidence of human sacrifice is abundant at Ao, but no inscriptions appeared on oracle bones

during this time as would be found in the latter periods at Yin. The layout of Zhegnzhou, with

ceremonial/ governmental centers enclosed by a wall, and workshops for bronze, bone, and

pottery as well as cemeteries, outside the wall, was the typical design for Shang settlements. Yin:

This was the location of the last capital and ceremonial center of the Shang dynasty, existing for

approximately 273 years. It was during this time that diviners began extensive writing on oracle

bones. Being dated to the seventh millennium B.C.E., they predate the earliest Mesopotamian

writing by three millennia.

With the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 B.C.E.) the main streams of Chinese civilization come into much sharper focus. Many of the foundations of Chinese thought and society came into existence during the Zhou period. One of the most important is the concept of the mandate of heaven, which proposed that heavenly powers, although indistinct, granted emperors the power to govern. Consequently, the emperors served as a connection between heaven and earth and had to therefore maintain high standards of honor and justice as well as provide order. In practice this theory never achieved more than decentralized authority during the Zhou period. Eventually the Zhou emperors lost control to regional princes, best shown through the imperial failure to monopolize iron metallurgy, and this loss of power resulted in a long period of political decline. As early as 771 B.C.E. the western half of the empire collapsed, and the last two centuries are known as the “Period of the Warring States.” Order was not restored until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E. Society and Family in Ancient China As early as the Xia dynasty the royal family rose to a prominent social position. The largely decentralized political structure of the Shang and Zhou periods allowed for the rise of a powerful aristocratic element. Craftsmen and merchants, fueled by a long-distance trade that extended back to the Xia period, held important positions in society. In this society, as in other early societies, the vast majority of the population was made up of peasants and slaves. The extended family unit played a crucial role in Chinese society, partly because of the profound influence of the veneration of ancestors. This practice led to a strong sense of family solidarity and eventually translated into a

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