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CNSL 503/ CNSL503 Final Exam| Questions and Answers | Latest 2025/2026 Update | GRADE A, Exams of Statistics

Portage Lakes Career CenterStatistics

CNSL 503/ CNSL503 Final Exam| Questions and Answers | Latest 2025/2026 Update | GRADE A (100 out of 100)

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2024/2025

Available from 07/10/2025

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CNSL 503/ CNSL503 Final Exam| Questions and
Answers | Latest 2025/2026 Update | GRADE A
(100 out of 100)
1.
True or False: Statistics is used to prove claims.
False
2.
What are Variables?
Variables are measurable characteristics that can vary in value. My answer:
Variables are different types of data in an experiment (used to classify the type of
data being collected).
3.
What type of scale is used when labeling or using categories?
This would be qualitative data and the SCALE would be nominal! Ex: blood type,
college majors, room numbers.
4.
True or false: it is generally feasible to collect data from every member of a
population.
False, unless the target of a particular research study is comprised of a small
population, it is usually not practical or sensible to attempt to reach every member
within a population.
5.
Which of the following are examples of ordinal variables? Select all that apply.
-
Shirt sizes
-
college major
-
places in a marathon (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
-
Temperature
Explanation: ordinal is used for qualitative variables and includes ranking in size or
measure (does not indicate how much the data differ).
6.
When a variable can contain negative values, what type of scale is most
appropriate? Why?
An interval scale because variables containing negative values do not have an
absolute zero. Note: this is quantitative data.
7.
When is it most appropriate to use a ratio scale?
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Download CNSL 503/ CNSL503 Final Exam| Questions and Answers | Latest 2025/2026 Update | GRADE A and more Exams Statistics in PDF only on Docsity!

CNSL 503/ CNSL503 Final Exam| Questions and

Answers | Latest 2025/2026 Update | GRADE A

(100 out of 100)

  1. True or False: Statistics is used to prove claims. False
  2. What are Variables? Variables are measurable characteristics that can vary in value. My answer: Variables are different types of data in an experiment (used to classify the type of data being collected).
  3. What type of scale is used when labeling or using categories? This would be qualitative data and the SCALE would be nominal! Ex: blood type, college majors, room numbers.
  4. True or false: it is generally feasible to collect data from every member of a population. False, unless the target of a particular research study is comprised of a small population, it is usually not practical or sensible to attempt to reach every member within a population.
  5. Which of the following are examples of ordinal variables? Select all that apply.
  • Shirt sizes
  • college major
  • places in a marathon (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
  • Temperature Explanation: ordinal is used for qualitative variables and includes ranking in size or measure (does not indicate how much the data differ).
  1. When a variable can contain negative values, what type of scale is most appropriate? Why? An interval scale because variables containing negative values do not have an absolute zero. Note: this is quantitative data.
  2. When is it most appropriate to use a ratio scale?

A ratio scale is used when a variable has an absolute zero (Ex: height, weight, exam scores, GPA). Note: this is quantitative data.

Explanation: the steps are identify goals, gather sample, make inferences/conclusions.

  1. A movie theater is interested in how movie-goers would rate the current movies being shown. They survey a group of 100 movie-goers and ask each to rate the movie they saw on a scale of 1 - 5 (1 = terrible, 5 = excellent). The surveyors then calculate the average rating of each movie. This is an example of what kind of statistic?
  • descriptive statistics
  • sample statistics
  • parametric statistics
  • inferential statistics Because average rating of movie is a calculation used to summarize / describe.
  1. Which of the following is a discrete variable? Select all that apply.
  • Number of pets per household
  • distance
  • number of patients at a hospital
  • exam scores Because discrete variables can ONLY be counted as whole numbers.
  1. Name a continuous variable. Why is it considered continuous? Ex: weight, temperature, time, length, and speed. Continuous variables are variables that can be broken down into smaller, fractional components (decimals, fractions, etc). It does NOT have to be a whole number.
  2. Which of the following fields do NOT use statistics?
  • politics
  • sports
  • entertainment
  • medicine
  • none of these fields use statistics
  • all of these fields use statistics
  1. Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding populations?
  • it is expected that every member of a population will agree to participate in a study.
  • studying every member of a population is how most behavioral and clinical studies are conducted
  • it is only practical to reach all members of small populations
  • only one method is used to gather samples from populations
  1. A team of clinical researchers is studying stress levels of a sample of 15 paramedics undergoing a new training program at a local hospital. The researchers stage two hypothetical medical emergencies for the paramedics: one low stakes and one high stakes. Then they measure their cortisol levels. The scenarios are administered at the same time every day, but the location changes based on the scenario being presented. In this experiment - identify the independent, dependent, control, and extraneous variables. Independent: emergency situations (scenario) Dependent: cortisol levels Control: time of day Extraneous variables: location Note: Extraneous variables are any variable not being investigated that has the potential to affect the outcome of a research study. Control variable is an experimental element which is constant (controlled) and unchanged throughout.
  2. Why is the field of statistics important? It allows data to be described and communicated succinctly and concisely. Statistics allow inferences to be drawn about data, particularly when it is not feasible to collect information from all members of a certain group. Statistics equip us with the necessary tools needed to critically evaluate information. My answer: statistics gives people a guide in a world where there is so much information - news, advertisements, products, etc. This gives people a way of sorting through data, organizing numbers, and making everyday decisions.
  3. When the frequency for every value in a dataset is presented, a is formed:
  • frequency diffusion
  • frequency distribution
  • frequency dispersion
  • frequency dispersal
  1. A range of scores can be grouped in sets called.
  1. Why are pie charts not used frequently be researchers and statisticians? The effectiveness of pie charts is limited to datasets with only a few categories. My answer: they are best with a small number of relative frequencies - too many "slices" make it difficult to interpret the pie chart.
  2. The sum of all relative frequencies in a dataset will always equal. 1 or 100%.
  3. Calculate the mean for the following set of scores: 89, 75, 91, 68, 72, 83, 94, 78 Mean ( x N) = ∑ (sum of) X / n xN= (89 + 75 + 91 + 68 + 72 + 83 + 94 + 78) / 8 = 81.
  4. True or false: the median is affected by outliers. False. Neither the mode nor median is affected by outliers. It IS possible for the mean to be affected.
  5. A neuropsychologist records the scores on the MMSE (Mini-Mental State Examination) for 30 patients. Every score appears once in the dataset. What would this distribution be known as?
  • multimodal distribution
  • uniform distribution
  • bimodal distribution
  • unimodal distribution Explanation: distribution can be described by shape and symmetry. The number of peaks is determined by # number of modes. Since there is no mode it is uniform distribution.
  1. Determine the median for the following set of scores: 2121, 2115, 2117, 2120, 2118, 2122. First put in order from least to greatest (2115, 2117, 2118, 2120, 2121, 2122). Then find the middle number. If there are two take the mean of the two. (2118 + 2120) / 2 = 2119
  1. The bars of do not touch because they represent discrete values, whereas the bars of do touch because they represent continuous values. Answer: bar graph; histogram Explanation: each bar in a bar graph/bar chart represents an individual category.
  2. Aaron scores a mean of 85 (s = 8) on 4 of his cognitive psychology exams for fall semester. Kyle scores a mean of 83 (s = 4) on the cognitive psychology exams. Does Aaron or Kyle have the more consistent performance on the exams? Kyle because his standard deviation (s) was lower, which indicates less variability in his test scores compared to aaron.
  3. Which type of graph clearly depicts the shape of a distribution? Frequency polygon because the increasing and decreasing sections of the data can be seen.
  4. In a symmetrical distribution, what is the most commonly used measure of central tendency? Mean Note: in a symmetrical distribution, the mean/median/mode are all the same value.
  5. Researchers are studying the average miles per gallon (mpg) of different cars based on size (compact, mid-size, and full-size) and make (Ford, Chevy, and Chrysler). Would a three-dimensional graph be appropriate to use to display these data? Explain. Yes, because there are three variables being measured (mpg, car size, and car make). So a three dimensional graph would be the best choice. Three-dimensional graph is best for "three dimensional data"
  6. Seven food trucks are competing to see how many customers visit their trucks per day in a busy part of the city. The average number of customers that visit each food truck per day is 281. The sum of squares is found to be 187. Calculate the variance for these data S² or σ² (variance) = ∑ (X - x N) ^ 2 / (n - 1) and ∑ (X - x N) ^ 2 = SS (sum of squares) Variance = sum of (term in data set - sample mean) squared / (sample size - 1) Sum of squares = 187

It can be from biased sample choice (convenient sampling), selection bias, errors made while collecting the data (measurement bias), response bias, miscalculations, ect.

  1. This type of sampling involves randomly gathering data from subgroups in the population known as strata Stratified sampling. It's a type of random sampling used when the population can be divided into subgroups (called strata). Used when a researcher wants to compare outcomes for different subgroups w/in a population or to compare outcomes between subgroups.
  2. What is a statistical hypothesis? A claim made about a population parameter
  3. The area in the distribution of sample means where a low probability exists is called
  • critical region
  • hypothetical region
  • skewed region
  • significant region If a test statistic lies in the critical region, then there is reason to reject the null hypothesis.
  1. Generally, if a test statistic is than the critical value, then it is considered statistically significant.
  • less extreme
  • better
  • more extreme
  • more central
  1. Regional managers administer a job satisfaction survey to their employees. Some of the employees are fearful that if they respond negatively to the questions, then they will be fired. So, they provide inaccurate responses. What type of bias is occurring here?
  • response
  • selection
  • measurement
  • proprietary This occurs when participants respond to surveys with inaccurate, untruthful, or exaggerated responses.
  1. As the sample size increases, does the sample mean more closely or less closely represent the population mean? More closely. This is summarized by the central limit theorem. It states that the mean of the distribution of sample means is equivalent to the population mean for large sample sizes (n = 30 or more) & the distribution of sample means is an approximately normal distribution for large sample sizes.
  2. Sample sizes with less than members are considered small. - 30
  • 50
  • 100
  • 20
  1. The involves performing numerous observations of a given situation and recording the number of times an event occurs Relative frequency method. Then a frequency distribution graph can be used to display the distribution of scores.
  2. A is a frequency distribution of each statistic from every possible sample of a given size from the population Sampling distribution
  3. A bag of marbles contains 42 red balls, 38 green balls, and 23 yellow balls. Calculate the probability of selecting a green ball from the bag. Probability (A) = number of outcomes in A / total number of possible outcomes. 38 / 103 = 0.
  4. What term refers to the average error expected between the sample mean ( x N) and the population mean (μ) in a sampling distribution? Standard error ( 𝜎xN). Also known as standard deviation.
  5. Researchers are studying the effects of a new cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) technique on anxiety. They recruit a sample of 275 patients with anxiety, and the patients participate in the therapy. The researchers then compare the mean
  1. Which of the following are principles of the central limit theorem? Select all that apply.
  • the mean of the distribution of sample means is equivalent to the population mean for larger sample sizes
  • the distribution of sample means is an approximately normal distribution for large sample sizes
  • the median of the distribution of sample means is equal to 1
  • the standard deviation of the distribution of sample means equals σ / √ n
  • the distribution of samples means is a uniform distribution
  1. Which of the following are some of the major critiques of hypothesis testing? Select all that apply.
  • the significance level is an arbitrary value
  • there is publishing bias towards results that are not statistically significant
  • p values do not reflect the size of an effect
  • hypothesis testing is unaffected by sample size
  • the results of hypothesis testing are frequently misinterpreted and misunderstood
  1. Researchers are studying the relationship between room lighting and exam scores. After they conduct their experiment, they find a statistically significant result that provides evidence that a dimly lit room results in decreased performance on an exam. However, in reality, there is no relationship between room lighting and exam performance. What type of error was made by the researchers? Explain your answer. Type 1 error - "false positive" In this case the researchers rejected the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis was true
  2. True or false: a normal distribution follows a symmetrical, bimodal curve False. A normal distribution follows a bell-shaped, symmetrical, unimodal curve known as "normal curve".
  3. True or false: a normal distribution can be defined by its median False. But the mean is located in the middle of the curve and the median/mean/mode are typically all equal.
  1. True or false: a standard score is an exact value that is observed False. A raw score is an exact value that is observed
  2. The shows the proportion of values that fall to the left of a given z- score in a normal distribution.
  • normal curve
  • t-table
  • standard normal table
  • normal frequency table Use the z-score to the nearest tenth
  1. The hypothesis of a z-test states that there is no difference between a given sample mean ( x N) and a population mean (μ). Whereas, the hypothesis states there is a difference. Null; alternative
  2. What does a z-score of 0 indicate? The raw value corresponds to the mean In my words: the raw value is the same number as the population mean (no deviation?)
  3. What Cohen's d value typically corresponds to a small effect size?

Medium = 0. Large = 0.

  1. In a normal distribution, approximately what percentage of values lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean? 99.7% - the 68/95/99.7 rule says that 68% of the values fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean, about 95% of the values fall within 2 standard deviations, and 99.7% of the values fall within 3 standard deviations.

X = xN+ z (s) Value = sample mean + z-score (standard deviation) X = 9.1 + (0.7)(1.1) = 9.87 minutes

  1. Statistical power involves determining the probability of making what type of error? Type II error (failing to reject a false null hypothesis). Statistical power (β) is effect, sample, size, significance level, number of tails of the test, and type of hypothesis used.
  2. Which of the following tends to decrease statistical power? Select all that apply.
  • large sample sizes - two tailed tests
  • high significance levels
  • one tailed tests - low α levels Note: Large effect sizes, large sample sizes, one-tailed tests, and higher significance levels tend to INCREASE statistical power.
  1. For a two tailed z-test with α = 0.05, which of the following is the correct critical value? +/- 1. +/- 3. +/- 2. +/- 1. +/- 1. Note: need to memorize these values, they aren't given on exam
  2. A is a range of values that is likely to contain the true population mean. Confidence interval - they are centered around the mean and include a margin of error.
  3. A lab technician is testing the reliability of one of the balances in the lab. He weighs the same weigh boat with 2g of sugar 9 times and obtains a mean

measurement of 2.02 g (s = 0.04). Using a critical value of 1.96, construct a 95% confidence interval for these data. Confidence interval range = (xN- (z x s/√n) to (xN+ (z x s/√n) (2.02 - 1.96 x 0.04 / √9) to (2.02 + 1.96 x 0.04 / √9) = 1.994 to 2. 1.994 g < μ < 2.046 g

  1. A group of 10 local ice cream shops believes that they sell more ice cream than the average ice cream shop because they have a better-quality product than most shops. The mean number of customers they serve per day is 512. The national mean for ice cream shops is 500 with a standard deviation of 24. Perform all 4 steps of a z-test to test this claim (α = 0.05) Step 1) H0: μ = 500 Ha: μ > 500 Step 2) Critical value = + 1. Step 3) Z = (X - μ / σ) / √n = (512 - 500 / 24) / √10 = 1. Step 4) Fail to reject null hypothesis. The z-score does not fall into the critical region. There is not enough evidence to support that there is likely a difference in the number of customers that frequent the group of ice cream shops.
  2. A teacher administers a nutrition exam to her 45 students. The mean score on the exam was 75 (μ = 75, σ = 8). The teacher wants to determine the proportion of students who scored above 80 on the exam. Using the z-table, determine this proportion. Z = X - μ / σ = 80 - 75 / 8 = 0. The proportion of scores that lie below z = 0.63 (to the left) is 0.73565. This means that 73% of the values lie below the z-score of 0.63. To find the scores above the z- score, 0.73565 needs to be subtracted from 1. Therefore, 1 - 0.73565 = 0.26435 or 2 6.435%
  1. Which of the following equations is used to calculate the df for a paired samples t-test?
  • Df = n - 1
  • Df = n - 2
  • Dftotal = df1 +df
  • Df = (n - 1) (n - 1)
  1. The result of a one sample t-test is found to be t = 1.14. The critical value is 2.160. What is the correct decision regarding the null hypothesis? Fail to reject the null hypothesis
  2. A teacher wants to compare her students' mean math score to the mean national math score. What type of t-test could the teacher perform?
  • one sample t-test
  • paired samples t-test
  • independent samples t-test
  • dependent samples t-test Compares a single mean to a population mean.
  1. A researcher wants to test the quality of sleep of a group of participants before and after trying a new sleep hygiene strategy. What type of t-test could the researcher perform?
  • one sample t-test
  • paired sample t-test
  • independent samples t-test
  • dependent samples t-test Also known as related samples. Compares two samples /groups that are related. This test would specifically be a repeated measures study.
  1. A political analyst surveys participants from two political parties on their rating of local town government to see if there is a difference between the ratings. What type of t-test could the analyst perform?
  • one sample t-test
  • paired sample t-test
  • independent samples t-test
  • dependent samples t-test

Compares the difference between two samples or groups of subjects who are completely independent of one another. Members of one group have no relation to second group and a member can't be in both groups.

  1. In an independent samples study, the sample mean of one group is found to be xN(1) = 36.12 and the sample mean of the other group is xN(2) = 35.41. The estimated standard error is s ( x N 1 - xN2) = 0.87. With a critical value of 2.160, construct the 95% confidence interval. Μ1 - μ2 = (xN 1 - xN2) +/- tcrit x S ( x N 1 - x N 2 ) 36.12 - 35.41 +/- 2.160 x 0. = 0.71 +/- 1. [ - 1.17, 2.59 ]
  2. In a one sample study design with 50 participants, the sample standard deviation is found to be s=4.3. Calculate the estimated standard error. SxN= s / √n Standard error = standard deviation / √sample size = 4.3 / √ =0.
  3. True or false: an independent measures design utilizes different samples from different populations True.
  4. True or false: an independent measures design matches participants based on specific variables False. This is matched pairs study & matched pairs study is a type of paired sample t-test
  5. True or false: a repeated measures study is also known as between-subjects study False. A repeated measures study is also known as a within subjects study
  6. In a one sample study, the sample mean was found to be xN= 64.15 (s = 12.7) and the population mean is μ = 650. Calculate the effect size and describe it.